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Finished composites constructed in Experiment 1. These were produced by participant-constructors selecting from EvoFIT face arrays with one level of externalfeatures blurring: (a) none, (b) low, (c) medium and (d) high. Image (e) is the target photograph shown to the constructors who subsequently constructed these composites. Images (f)-(i) show internal features of (a)-(d), respectively. Participant-evaluators were asked to name the composites constructed in this experiment (some of which are shown here) either as complete images (top row) or as internal features (bottom row). After naming the composites, they named the target photographs (including the one shown above).
Source publication
Recognition memory for unfamiliar faces is facilitated when contextual cues (e.g., head pose, background environment, hair and clothing) are consistent between study and test. By contrast, inconsistencies in external features, especially hair, promote errors in unfamiliar face-matching tasks. For the construction of facial composites, as carried ou...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... were printed in colour to dimensions of approximately 8cm wide by 10cm high. An example target photograph is shown in Figure 2. ...
Context 2
... Oval and Rectangular Marquee tools in Adobe Photoshop were employed to crop internal features from complete images. Examples are presented in Figure 2. A set of target photographs was printed, as in Stage 1. Participant-evaluators were asked to name the composites constructed in this experiment (some of which are shown here) either as complete images (top row) or as internal features (bottom row). ...
Context 3
... the latter condition provides an exterior context that closely reflects what the constructor saw, that region of the image will still contain inconsistencies. First, some exterior parts do not match, in particular the background context-notice, for example, the textual background (a door) behind the subject in Figure 2(e). Such discrepancies may give rise to distraction, worsening performance. ...
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... Most images of faces include nonface features, such as hair, which can decrease face recognition ability (Frowd et al., 2012). According to the findings of Axelrod and Yovel (2010), the fusiform face area seems to be sensitive to the presence of different external features (even to nonface object stimuli such as glasses) and those can modify the representation of internal facial features. ...
The ability to remember faces is essential for everyday life, with deficits indicative of some neurological conditions. Face recognition ability tasks vary considerably in their design (i.e., use of the same or a different picture for learning and recall and inclusion or exclusion of nonface characteristics), which is known to impact performance levels. However, it is unknown whether these design features cause additional cognitive abilities to be assessed. We preregistered three hypotheses, namely performance on face recognition tasks can best be explained by: (Hypothesis 1) a single general face recognition ability; (Hypothesis 2) a general face recognition ability and an unrelated ability representing one's capacity to ignore external information when recognizing faces; and (Hypothesis 3) a general face recognition ability, a separable unrelated ability to ignore external information, and a third unrelated ability representing one's capacity to recognize faces specifically when different photographs of the same individual are used. During a controlled laboratory session, N = 176 adults (Mage = 25.52 years) completed 16 face recognition tasks that comprised different versions of the aforementioned task designs. With confirmatory factor analysis, we found support for Hypothesis 1, indicating that the rank order of participants regarding their face recognition ability does not meaningfully differ due to the different task designs, indicating additional abilities are not needed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... The texture is often a 'best guess' based on forensic evidence, biological profile, and circumstantial evidence. Some features, such as the hairline, are blurred in the final image, as it is not possible to ascertain this from the skull alone, and such detail could affect recognition (Frowd et al. 2012). Depictions are often presented in black and white to reduce distractions due to the application of incorrect skin, hair and eye colour (Taylor 2000;Vermeulen 2012). ...
Facial reconstruction is a technique that can be used to estimate individual faces from human skulls. The presentation of 3D facial reconstructions as photo-realistic depictions of people from the past to public audiences varies widely due to differing methods, the artists' CGI skillset, and access to VFX software required to generate plausible faces.This chapter describes three digital methods for the addition of realistic textures to 3D facial reconstructions; a 2D photo-composite method, a 3D digital painting and rendering method, and a previously undescribed hybrid 2.5D method.These methods are compared and discussed in relation to artistic proficiency, morphological accuracy and practitioner bias.
... Investigaciones posteriores mostraron que, si se omitían completamente los rasgos externos hasta el final de la construcción del retrato, se podía incrementar la identificación hasta un 42% (Frowd et al., 2012d). Un porcentaje similar de incremento se obtuvo cuando se introdujeron cambios en la forma de presentar al público el retrato, y en la manera de entrevistar a los participantes. ...
Facial composite is a technique frequently used in police investigation. However, laboratory research indicates that the level of identification of a face, from a facial composite, is low. One reason for this is that the traditional sketch does not approximate human facial recognition processes. In the last two decades there have been fourth generation systems, based on evolutionary programming with genetic algorithms, whose main characteristic is the combination and evolution of complete faces that gradually can converge on an objective face. The Caramex II system, based on the anthropometric characteristics of the face of the Mexican population, intends to use an evolutionary approach to construct facial composites.
... Investigaciones posteriores mostraron que, si se omitían completamente los rasgos externos hasta el final de la construcción del retrato, se podía incrementar la identificación hasta un 42% (Frowd et al., 2012d). Un porcentaje similar de incremento se obtuvo cuando se introdujeron cambios en la forma de presentar al público el retrato, y en la manera de entrevistar a los participantes. ...
El retrato hablado es una técnica frecuentemente utilizada en la investigación policial. Sin embargo, la investigación de laboratorio indica que el nivel de identificación de un rostro, a partir de un retrato hablado, es bajo. Una de las razones de esto es que el retrato hablado tradicional no se aproxima a los procesos de reconocimiento facial humano. En las últimas dos décadas se han creado sistemas de cuarta generación, basados en programación evolutiva con algoritmos genéticos, cuya principal característica es la combinación y evolución de rostros completos que gradualmente pueden converger en un rostro objetivo. El sistema Caramex II, basado en las características antropométricas del rostro de la población mexicana, pretende utilizar una aproximación evolutiva para construir retratos hablados.
... Internal features of a composite must therefore be a good match to those in a target face; however, internal features are typically constructed less accurately than external features (particularly hair; Frowd, Bruce, McIntyre, & Hancock, 2007). Finally, presenting witnesses with only internal features in face arrays for composite construction, with external features added at the end of the procedure, greatly facilitates ensuing identification of EvoFIT composites (e.g., Frowd, Skelton, Atherton, et al., 2012). In contrast to the CI approach requiring only recall of facial features-that is, with no particular emphasis on features that might be useful for recognition-there is therefore evidence that focusing witnesses on internal features during composite construction results in this region being more accurately constructed, and that this change contributes to a naming advantage for complete composites. ...
... This process may strengthen a holistic face representation, ultimately aiding recognition for the whole face. In turn, it may help a witness to assess when a good visual likeness has been achieved during composite construction (Frowd, Skelton, Atherton, et al., 2012). It is also well-aligned with the process involved in newer, holistic systems (see Frowd et al., 2015). ...
... Using this method, constructors repeatedly select from face arrays, with choices combined, to "evolve" a likeness (Davis et al., 2016;Frowd et al., 2013;Tredoux et al., 2006). We used EvoFIT, largely because evidence indicates it produces identifiable faces as part of a realistic design (e.g., Frowd, Skelton, Atherton, et al., 2012), as used here, although our intention is that results should be applicable to similar methods to create a face. Research using the gold standard and 24-hr retention interval indicates that the H-CI is very effective at facilitating correct naming (cf. ...
We investigated the impact of congruency between the witness interview and method used to construct a composite face. Experiment 1, using a typical feature-by-feature composite method, revealed that aligning cognitive processes during interview and face construction enhanced the effectiveness of composites compared with composites produced following unaligned (incongruent) procedures. Experiment 2 revealed that incorporating character judgments in the witness interview substantially enhanced identification of feature-based composites when constructing the central (internal) features first, suggesting that such judgments focus attention on this region of the face. Experiment 3 explored alignment of processes using an approach based on an evolutionary algorithm, a method requiring witnesses to create a composite by selecting from arrays based on the eye-region. A combination of character judgments, first for the whole face and then for the eye region, led to best-identified composites. Overall, results indicate that more effective composites are produced when both interview and construction procedures are aligned cognitively. Results are discussed with relevance to the theory of transfer-appropriate processing (Morris, Bransford, & Franks, 1977). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
... Three such studies utilised a similar version of EvoFIT and similar conditions to Experiment 3 (interviewing and composite construction taking place one day after target encoding). Although using different target pools (international footballers, Frowd et al., 2012b;retail staff, Frowd et al., 2012c;EastEnders characters, Frowd et al., 2013), correct naming rates are consistent (ranging from 22.7 -24.1%) as well as being very similar to that obtained in Experiment 3 (22.5%). Consistency across studies indicates that target pool size does not appear to exert a notable impact on composite naming. ...
Standard forensic practice necessitates that a witness describes an offender's face prior to constructing a visual likeness, a facial composite. However, describing a face can interfere with face recognition, although a delay between description and recognition theoretically should alleviate this issue. In Experiment 1, participants produced a free recall description either 3-4 hr or 2 days after intentionally or incidentally encoding a target face, and then constructed a composite using a modern "feature" system immediately or after 30 min. Unexpectedly, correct naming of composites significantly reduced following the 30-min delay between description and construction for targets encoded 2 days previously. In Experiment 2, participants in these conditions gave descriptions that were better matched to their targets by independent judges, a result which suggests that the 30-min delay actually impairs access to details of recalled descriptions that are valuable for composite effectiveness. Experiment 3 found the detrimental effect of description delay extended to composites constructed from a "holistic" face production system. The results have real-world but counterintuitive implications for witnesses who construct a face 1 or 2 days after a crime: After having recalled the face to a practitioner, an appreciable delay (here, 30 min) should be avoided before starting face construction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
... Gaussian blurring in face recognition suggested that faces are recognisable even when they are blurred or pixelated [34][35][36]. External features such as hair can also have an effect on human recognition [24,37,38]. With the conditions above, this study aims to explore how an FRS is able to handle 'resemblance' images at different conditions known to benefit human recognition. ...
Machine-based facial recognition could help law enforcement and other organisations to match juvenile faces more efficiently. It is especially important when dealing with indecent images of children to minimise the workload, and deal with moral and stamina challenges related to human recognition. With growth related changes, juvenile face recognition is challenging. The challenge not only relates to the growth of the child’s face, but also to face recognition in the wild with unconstrained images. The aim of the study was to evaluate how different conditions (i.e. black and white, cropped, blur and resolution reduction) can affect machine-based facial recognition of juvenile age progression. The study used three off-the-shelf facial recognition algorithms (Microsoft Face API, Amazon Rekognition, and Face++) and compared the original images and the age progression images under the four image conditions against an older image of the child. The results showed a decrease in facial similarity with an increased age gap, in comparison to Microsoft; Amazon and Face++ showed higher confidence scores and are more resilient to a change in image condition. The image condition ‘black and white’ and ‘cropped’ had a negative effect across all three APIs. The relationship between age progression images and the younger original image was explored. The results suggest manual age progression images are no more useful than the original image for facial identification of missing children, and Amazon and Face++ performed better with the original image.
... Indeed, systems using a holistic approach, such as E-FITV and EvoFIT (another holistic facial composite system utilizing a similar method to EFIT-V, but presenting grids of 18 greyscale facial images), were designed explicitly to be a good match for human cognition and to avoid a situation in which a witness is required to process a facial image in a way that would be "unnatural" (Gibson et al., 2003). Research has found that the holistic, PCA approach to composite construction does appear to be more compatible with human cognition (Brace et al., 2008) and, critically, to produce facial images that are a better likeness to the perpetrator (Frowd et al., 2010(Frowd et al., , 2012. ...
An eyewitness can contribute to a police investigation both by creating a composite image of the face of the perpetrator and by attempting to identify them during an identification procedure. This raises the potential issue that creating a composite of a perpetrator might then interfere with the subsequent identification of that perpetrator. Previous research exploring this issue has tended to use older feature-based composite systems, but the introduction of new holistic composite systems is an important development as they were designed to be a better match for human cognition and are likely to interact with memory in a different way. This issue was explored in the current experiment. Participants were randomly assigned to a feature-based composite construction condition (using E-FIT), a holistic-based composite construction condition (using EFIT-V) or a control condition. An ecologically valid delay between seeing a staged crime, creating the composite, and completing the identification task was employed to better match conditions in real investigations. The results showed that neither type of composite construction had an effect on participants’ accuracy on a subsequent identification task. This suggests that facial composite systems, including holistic systems, may not negatively impact subsequent eyewitness identification evidence.
... In contrast, the recognition of unfamiliar faces is either better supported by external features or equally supported by internal and external features (Bonner, Burton, & Bruce, 2003;Ellis et al., 1979;Liu et al., 2013;Megreya & Bindemann, 2009;Want, Pascalis, Coleman, & Blades, 2003b). The recognition of unfamiliar faces is reduced when the external features are altered (Cutler, Penrod, & Martens, 1987;Frowd et al., 2012;Toseeb, Keeble, & Bryant, 2012), and children are more susceptible to errors following this manipulation, suggesting that children are more reliant on external features for face recognition than adults (Freire & Lee, 2001;Sugimura, 2013). ...
This study examined eye movements to unfamiliar child faces as a function of memory in children and adults. Young adults ( n = 30) and 7‐ to 11‐year‐old children ( n = 30) performed a recognition memory task with neutral child faces. At encoding, fixating on internal features, especially the eye region, was associated with subsequently forgetting the face. During retrieval, children and adults fixated on internal features and the nose of correctly recognized faces more than novel faces. However, age‐related differences were present in fixations to individual facial features. Adults viewed the eye region of correctly recognized faces more than novel faces, whereas children's gaze behavior of the eye region did not differ as a function of viewing history. This finding suggests an increase in the reliance on the eye region, which provides critical information for social communication, for face recognition from middle childhood to young adulthood.
Highlights
Encoding of external features supports face recognition
Children and adults fixate less on external features of previously viewed than novel faces
Adults, but not children, view the eye region of previously viewed faces more than novel faces
... It produces composites that are identified correctly 30% of the time by people who are familiar with the target identities [8]. This can rise to 45% using more recent strategies for composition [9]. Humberside police used EvoFIT in 35 criminal investigations, and it led to arrests in 60% of cases [10]. ...
Evolutionary facial composites are created using interactive genetic algorithms from user selections. This approach is grounded on perceptive studies and is superior to feature-based systems. A method is presented to create facial composites where faces are encoded with shape information, the coordinates of a predefined landmark points, and the image gradient, which represents face information more precisely than image luminance. The new method is accompanied by a Poisson integration process to present the user with candidate faces. Two user tests, one with composite creators and the other with external evaluators, show that the new method produces higher rated composites which are better recognized.
