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Figure �.�. D. Berlyne model of the relationship between arousal potential and the attractiveness of stimulation and arousal.
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Background:
Obesity is a major public health challenge and recent literature sheds light on the concept of "normalization" of obesity.
Objective:
We aimed to study the worldwide pattern of web based information seeking by public on obesity and related terms and topics using Google Trends.
Methods:
We compared the relative frequency of search t...
Citations
... vulgare;Tuck and Hassall, 2004). Although the adaptive function of exploratory behavior has poorly been studied (Pisula, 2009) and assessing the costs of exploration is easier than estimating its benefits (Birke and Archer, 1983), this activity favors information gathering and is likely to provide secondary benefits in an environment in which the resources are not guaranteed. Today, a body of evidence indicates that reward-related information can be sought for itself in animals and humans (e.g., Smith and Zentall, 2016;Liew et al., 2022), and hence that acquiring information about the environment must have an adaptive value. ...
Exploratory activity is an essential component of animal behavior, including among invertebrate species. This study examined the effects of hydric deprivation and their possible modulation by light exposure on locomotion and rearing-up behavior in two woodlice species, Porcellio scaber (Latreille 1804) and Armadillidium vulgare (Latreille 1804). It was also an attempt to replicate previous findings on the stimulation of these behaviors in P. scaber, exposed to (pseudo)random vs. regular visual and tactile patterns in a small enclosure. In Experiment 1, two groups of P. scaber and two groups of A. vulgare were exposed to randomly vs. regularly distributed visual (black and white) and tactile (grained and smooth) patterns for approximately 20min. No rewards were present in the environment and the woodlice were tested without preliminary hydric deprivation. In Experiment 2, the same procedure was used but the woodlice were tested following a 20-min hydric deprivation under a bottle cap (darkness). Experiment 3 replicated this procedure with the 20-min hydric deprivation spent in a plastic cup (light exposure). The results of Experiments 1 and 3 provide partial replication with A. vulgare, but not P. scaber, of the previous findings: Random patterns stimulate rearing-up behavior on the apparatus' vertical walls more than regular patterns. Also, a more aversive stimulation in Experiment 3 compared to Experiment 2, increased locomotion, especially in the random environment. The role of hydric deprivation and light exposure in the process of escaping from a hostile environment is discussed, as well as the effects of the treatments used in these experiments.
... surprise) (Courville, Daw, Touretzky, 2006;Barto, Mirolli, Baldassarre, 2013), ciekawości (ang. curiosity) (Byrne, 2013;Pisula, 2009) czy niepewności (ang. uncertainty) (Smith, Redford, Beran, Washburn, 2010;Le Pelley, 2012;Smith, Washburn, 2005;Beran, Perdue, Church, Smith, 2016) u zwierząt. ...
Najogólniej emocje epistemiczne scharakteryzować można jako emocje, które dotyczą własnych stanów i procesów umysłowych podmiotu oraz związane są z poznaniem i generowaniem wiedzy. Mogą powstawać jako efekt niezgodności poznawczej, która może pojawić się w wyniku nieoczekiwanych informacji, sprzecznych z wcześniejszą wiedzą. Mają one istotny wpływ na eksplorację i generowanie wiedzy o sobie i o świecie oraz na zmiany konceptualne czy wydajność poznawczą. W badaniach eksperymentalnych dotyczących emocji epistemicznych brak jest perspektywy porównawczej. Na pierwszy rzut oka sytuacja ta może nie budzić kontrowersji, gdyż kategoria emocji epistemicznych została w taki sposób zdefiniowana, że wydaje się przysługiwać jedynie ludziom. Interesująca perspektywa pojawia się jednak, gdy podda się analizie badania porównawcze z zakresu etologii poznawczej, prymatologii czy psychologii porównawczej. Badacze wskazują na szereg zachowań zwierząt pozaludzkich świadczących za posiadaniem przez nie szerokiego wachlarzu emocji – w tym takich, które wyróżnia się w katalogu emocji epistemicznych, tj. zdziwienia, ciekawości czy niepewności. Przedstawiony artykuł stanowił będzie próbę odpowiedzi na postawione w tytule pytania oraz wprowadzenie do dociekań nad kategorią emocji epistemicznych uwzględniającą rezultaty badań z zakresu wspomnianych dziedzin.
... It must be borne in mind, however, that the ability to interact with an object is closely linked to an organism's perceptual abilities and the complexity of its nervous system. Depending on the level of its biological complexity, an organism can process and search for information at different levels of sensory, logical, and content-oriented complexity ( [18], p. 35). In this context, 'information' means any event that plays a role in the animal's behavioral regulation by attributing meaning to an environment-derived stimulus-provided that such information can be deciphered by the animal's sensory apparatus ( [18], p. 35). ...
... Depending on the level of its biological complexity, an organism can process and search for information at different levels of sensory, logical, and content-oriented complexity ( [18], p. 35). In this context, 'information' means any event that plays a role in the animal's behavioral regulation by attributing meaning to an environment-derived stimulus-provided that such information can be deciphered by the animal's sensory apparatus ( [18], p. 35). Many stimuli present in the environment may be available to the animal's perceptual apparatus, but if the animal cannot use these stimuli as behavior-regulating factors, what occurs is stimulation and not information ( [18], p. 35). ...
... In this context, 'information' means any event that plays a role in the animal's behavioral regulation by attributing meaning to an environment-derived stimulus-provided that such information can be deciphered by the animal's sensory apparatus ( [18], p. 35). Many stimuli present in the environment may be available to the animal's perceptual apparatus, but if the animal cannot use these stimuli as behavior-regulating factors, what occurs is stimulation and not information ( [18], p. 35). In order to take advantage of what an environment has to offer, an organism must have the capacity to process information provided by the environmental stimuli it receives [19]. ...
Most animals, including rats, show a preference for more complex environments. This is demonstrated particularly well when complexity increases due to the addition of new elements to the environment. The aim of the study was to investigate the reaction to novelty, understood as a change in environmental properties that involve both changes in complexity and controllability. Controllability may allow for dealing with challenges of an environment of low predictability in a way that the animal’s own activity reduces the uncertainty of environmental events. In our study, the animals underwent a spontaneous exploration test in low-stress conditions. After a period of habituation to the experimental arena, additional stationary (increased complexity) and/or movable (increased complexity and controllability) tunnels were introduced, and the reaction of the rats to the novel objects was measured. The results of the study confirmed that an increase in the complexity of the environment through the addition of objects triggers a more intensive exploratory activity in rats. However, an increased spatial complexity combined with the movability of the novel objects seems to result in increased caution towards the novelty after an initial inspection of the changed objects. It suggests that the complexity of the novelty may trigger both neophilia and neophobia depending on the level of the predictability of the novel environment and that the movability of newly introduced objects is not independent of other parameters of the environment.
... Humans are hungry for information. They are attracted by novelty, and engage in independent exploration and in innovative hypothesis testing (Berlyne, 1966;Kidd & Hayden, 2015;Pelz & Kidd, 2020;Pisula, 2009;Wilson, 2000). Such behaviors shape societies, institutions, and daily lives for a good reason: they support learning (Kang et al., 2009). ...
Anticipating the learning consequences of actions is crucial to plan efficient information seeking. Such a capacity is needed for learners to determine which actions are most likely to result in learning. Here, we tested the early ontogeny of the human capacity to anticipate the amount of learning gained from seeing. In study 1, we tested infants’ capacity to anticipate the availability of sight. Fourteen‐month‐old infants (N = 72) were invited to search for a toy hidden inside a container. The participants were faster to attempt at opening a shutter when this action allowed them to see inside the container. Moreover, this effect was specifically observed when seeing inside the container was potentially useful to the participants’ goals. Thus, infants anticipated the availability of sight, and they calibrated their information‐seeking behaviors accordingly. In studies 2 and 3, we tested toddlers’ capacity to anticipate whether data would be cognitively useful for their goals. Two‐and‐a‐half‐year‐olds (N = 72) had to locate a target character hidden among distractors. The participants flipped the characters more often, and were comparatively faster to initiate this action when it yielded access to visual data allowing them to locate the target. Thus, toddlers planned their information‐seeking behaviors by anticipating the cognitive utility of sight. In contrast, toddlers did not calibrate their behaviors to the cognitive usefulness of auditory data. These results suggest that cognitive models of learning guide toddlers’ search for information. The early developmental onset of the capacity to anticipate future learning gains is crucial for active learning.
... Humans are hungry for information. They are attracted by novelty, and engage in independent exploration and in innovative hypothesis testing (Berlyne, 1966;Kidd & Hayden, 2015;Pelz & Kidd, 2020;Pisula, 2009;Wilson, 2000). Such behaviors shape societies, institutions, and daily lives for a good reason: they support learning (Kang et al., 2009). ...
Anticipating the learning consequences of actions is crucial to plan efficient information-seeking. Such a capacity is needed for learners to determine which actions are most likely to result in learning. Here, we tested the early ontogeny of the human capacity to anticipate the amount of learning gained from seeing. In Study 1, we tested infants’ capacity to anticipate the availability of sight. Fourteen-month-old infants (N = 72) were invited to search for a toy hidden inside a container. The participants were faster to attempt at opening a shutter when this action allowed them to see inside the container. Moreover, this effect was specifically observed when seeing inside the container was potentially useful to the participants’ goals. Thus, infants anticipated the availability of sight, and they calibrated their information-seeking behaviors accordingly. In Studies 2-3, we tested toddlers’ capacity to anticipate whether data would be cognitively useful for their goals. Two-and-a-half-year-olds (N = 72) had to locate a target character hidden among distractors. The participants flipped the characters more often, and were comparatively faster to initiate this action when it yielded access to visual data allowing them to locate the target. Thus, toddlers planned their information-seeking behaviors by anticipating the cognitive utility of sight. In contrast, toddlers did not calibrate their behaviors to the cognitive usefulness of auditory data. These results suggest that cognitive models of learning guide toddlers’ search for information. The early developmental onset of the capacity to anticipate future learning gains is crucial for active learning.
... Based on research and theoretical reflection, some authors have argued that animals in their habitats do not act in an unvarying manner. Instead, variation and flexibility are basic features of behavior (Gibson, 1994;Pisula, 2009;Reed, 1982Reed, , 1996. Novel responses have been linked to the adaptive value of variation in species selection (Neuringer, 2009;Skinner, 1985), creative processes, and novel behaviors (Pryor et al., 1969;Stahlman et al., 2013), as well as in the phenomenon of response induction through reinforcement (Keller & Schoenfeld, 1950;Lee et al., 2007). ...
... The advantage of rats using new paths could indicate the adaptive value of exploration and behavioral variability in animals while searching for food (Bell, 1991;Pisula, 2009). Considering that running through a maze is a niche-related behavior for a rat (Timberlake, 2002) may help explain the path variability. ...
To assess their orientation in mazes, Dashiell (1930) developed a procedure allowing rats to reach the goal by utilizing paths of equal distance from the starting point. The main finding was the variety of new pathways that the subjects took to reach the goal. Given the need for a task that might evaluate behavioral variability in humans, a simulation of the Dashiell procedure was developed: a virtual maze for human participants. With the goal of validating an animal model task for assessing human behavior variability, this study presents an experiment comparing rat and human performance when traversing a Dashiell maze. Results showed that rats in their maze and humans in the virtual version had similar path variability for reaching the goal, although humans showed higher dispersion from the mean. We conclude that the adaptive function of route variability in rats is similar to that in humans; thus, the virtual Dashiell maze could become a reliable and straightforward task for assessing human behavior variability. Our study encourages the use of virtual mazes to compare behavioral variability between humans and other species.
... Although similar to Ψ, the source of the information is the environment and it is an action that brings about this new information. Although most sense organs passively record information without the need for an action on the part of the organism, certain specific movements and actions direct the sense organs to the environment, in order to change the inputs to these sense organs, and acquire more information about the environment (Bell, 1990;Pisula, 2009). This includes anything from simple eye movements and orienting responses, to more complex inspection of objects, spatial search, roaming behaviours, exploration, training and play. ...
The classification of behaviour has historically been done using one of the two approaches, either through the hypothetical causes (such as ‘instincts’, ‘drives’ and ‘needs’) or through the cataloguing of the observable form of behaviour using an ethogram. This article offers an alternative framework for classification of behaviour based upon only the behavioural outcomes. The framework is specified from first principles of a state-space approach, allowing us to discuss intermediate outcomes that may have instrumental value. This approach could provide a firmer foundation to consider the hierarchical nature of goals and allows us to address both the ‘how’ and the ‘why’ questions within a single framework. This taxonomy is designed to complement rather than replace existing attempts; the classification of behaviour by outcome is orthogonal to questions of the mechanisms of decision making or of the implementation of actions. This article specifies nine basic classes of behaviour and provides precise definitions for each of these. We then develop a formal language for the description of observed activities, the representation of behavioural hierarchies and for the analysis of possibility sets for achieving future goals. We follow up with some critique and discussion of the problems such a framework poses.
... Based on research and theoretical reflection, some authors have argued that animals in their habitats do not act in an unvarying manner. Instead, variation and flexibility are basic features of behavior (Gibson, 1994;Pisula, 2009;Reed, 1982Reed, , 1996. Novel responses have been linked to the adaptive value of variation in species selection (Neuringer, 2009;Skinner, 1985), creative processes, and novel behaviors (Pryor et al., 1969;Stahlman et al., 2013), as well as in the phenomenon of response induction through reinforcement (Keller & Schoenfeld, 1950;Lee et al., 2007). ...
... The advantage of rats using new paths could indicate the adaptive value of exploration and behavioral variability in animals while searching for food (Bell, 1991;Pisula, 2009). Considering that running through a maze is a niche-related behavior for a rat (Timberlake, 2002) may help explain the path variability. ...
To assess their orientation in mazes, Dashiell (1930) developed a procedure allowing rats to reach the goal by utilizing paths of equal distance from the starting point. The main finding was the variety of new pathways the subjects took to reach the goal. Given the need for a task that might evaluate behavioral variability in humans, a simulation of the Dashiell procedure was developed: a virtual maze for human participants. With the goal of validating an animal model task for assessing human behavior variability, this study presents an experiment comparing rat and human performance when traversing a Dashiell maze. Results showed that rats in their maze and humans in the virtual version had similar path variability for reaching the goal; though humans showed higher dispersion from the mean. We conclude that the adaptive function of route variability in rats is similar to that in humans; thus the virtual Dashiell maze could become a reliable and straightforward task for assessing human behavior variability. Our study encourages the use of virtual mazes to compare behavioral variability between humans and other species.
... Empathy behaviors are seen in mice (Hofer, 1996;Bartal et al., 2011;Mogil, 2012;Rennie et al., 2013). Play has been observed in reptiles (Kramer and Burghardt, 2010), birds (Fagen, 1981), and mammals (Wojciech, 2009). Jealousy and fairness preferences have been observed in mice (Douglas, 2012). ...
Retracing the evolutionary steps by which human brains evolved can offer insights into the underlying mechanisms of human brain function as well as the phylogenetic origin of various features of human behavior. To this end, this article presents a model for interpreting the physical and behavioral modifications throughout major milestones in human brain evolution. This model introduces the concept of a “breakthrough” as a useful tool for interpreting suites of brain modifications and the various adaptive behaviors these modifications enabled. This offers a unique view into the ordered steps by which human brains evolved and suggests several unique hypotheses on the mechanisms of human brain function.
... Au cours de l'évolution, les espèces se sont dotées de plusieurs modules permettant de rechercher de l'information. On peut citer de manière non exhaustive : l'orientation réflexe, l'exploration locomotrice, l'investigation des réponses, l'exploration perceptuelle, les réponses manipulatrices, le jeu, et la curiosité (Pisula, 2009). En fait la faculté qu'a un organisme d'organiser ses comportements de recherche d'information est considérée comme un avantage évolutif majeur (Bates 2005 ;Spink et Cole 2006 ;Calhoun et Hayden 2015). ...
Les animaux ont la capacité fondamentale de structurer leurs actions en intégrant les issues de leurs choix afin de guider efficacement leurs recherches de récompenses. L'organisation cérébrale constitue le substrat de cette faculté de lier actes et récompenses dans le temps. Les activités des aires associatives, principalement préfrontales, reflètent des processus d'évaluation des récompenses et de contrôle de l'action. La recherche de dissociations fonctionnelles permet de révéler les contributions relatives des aires qui forment ce réseau. Nous avons comparé les activités de neurones du cortex préfrontal latéral (LPFC) avec celles du cortex cingulaire médian (MCC). Les activités du LPFC sont particulièrement fortes lors de la sélection d'une option suivant une instruction visuelle apprise. Les activités neuronales du MCC contiennent elles des représentations internes du suivi des récompenses et des stratégies à adopter en conséquence.Pour compléter l'étude corrélative des enregistrements unitaires, nous avons perturbé l'inhibition locale en injectant un antagoniste gabaergique dans le MCC. Ces interventions induisent des déficits à considérer l'historique des récompenses et des informations pour la régulation du comportement.Enfin, nous avons cherché dans les activités locales des déterminants intrinsèques à l'organisation du comportement. Nous avons extrait les signatures temporelles des activités du MCC et du LPFC que nous avons pu reproduire dans un modèle de réseau cortical par des jeux de conductances. Ces conductances fournissent un support mécanistique de la structuration des activités du réseau nécessaire à l'organisation temporelle des fonctions cognitives
