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This study examines race- and income-based disparities in cancer risks from air toxics in Cancer Alley, LA, USA. Risk estimates were obtained from the 2005 National Air Toxics Assessment and socioeconomic and race data from the 2005 American Community Survey, both at the census tract level. Disparities were assessed using spatially weighted ordinar...
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Environmental justice research has shown that many communities of color and low-income persons are differentially burdened by noxious land uses including Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) facilities. However, limited work has been performed to assess how these populations tend to be both overburdened and medically underserved. We explored this "double...
Citations
... However, since the late 1700s, human activities have resulted in a steady increase in greenhouse gas concentrations over the world. 9 Greenhouse gas emissions have a wide range of environmental and health consequences. They contribute to respiratory disease caused by smog and air pollution, as well as contributing to climate change by trapping heat. ...
... 49 Similar findings have been reported in mostly rural areas in Louisiana known as the "Cancer Alley" and California. 50,51 Multiple reasons could explain these racial disparities in rural areas. First, social determinants of health may play an essential role. ...
... For instance, the area called "Cancer Alley" is a long stretch of petrochemical exposures between Baton Rouge and New Orleans, in a largely rural and mostly Black populated area. 50,55 In addition, research has shown that systemic racism in the form of residential segregation contributed to increased diagnoses of breast cancer, for example, and poorer prognoses among Black women born in the Jim Crow era. 56 Cultural factors may also play a role in racial and ethnic disparities in cancer outcomes. ...
Background
Cancer is the second-leading cause of death in the United States. Most studies have reported rural versus urban and Black versus White cancer disparities. However, few studies have investigated racial disparities in rural areas.
Objective
We conducted a literature review to explore the current state of knowledge on racial and ethnic disparities in cancer attitudes, knowledge, occurrence, and outcomes in rural United States.
Methods
A systematic search of PubMed and Embase was performed. Peer-reviewed articles published in English from 2004-2023 were included. Three authors independently reviewed the articles and reached a consensus.
Results
After reviewing 993 articles, a total of 30 articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in the present review. Studies revealed that underrepresented racial and ethnic groups in rural areas were more likely to have low cancer-related knowledge, low screening, high incidence, less access to treatment, and high mortality compared to their White counterparts.
Conclusion
Underrepresented racial and ethnic groups in rural areas experienced a high burden of cancer. Improving social determinants of health may help reduce cancer disparities and promote health.
... The recent coronavirus pandemic further exacerbated their plight because of their compromised health. Despite efforts by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to regulate industries in the area and enhance the living standards of its residents, individuals in this region still face a 95% higher risk of cancer from air pollution compared with the rest of America [2,3]. The potential for catastrophic damage to land, marine, and coastal ecosystems underscores the importance of early detection and cleaning of oil and chemical spills in Cancer Alley to minimize environmental harm [4,5]. ...
... In the equations above, X in (1) represents the input, R denotes real numbers, H, W and D denote the height, weight, and depth of our image frames, while C represents the number of input image channels. Xv in (2) represents the flattened uniform nonoverlapping patches version of X. P in (2) denotes the resolution of each patch, and N is the length of the sequence, estimated using (3). Epos in (4) denotes learnable positional embedding, while E in (5) represents projected patch embedding. ...
The detrimental impact of toxic chemicals, gas, and oil spills in aquatic environments poses a severe threat to plants, animals, and human life. Regions such as Cancer Alley exemplify the profound consequences of inadequately controlled chemical spills, significantly affecting the local community. Given the far-reaching effects of these spills, it has become imperative to devise an efficient method for early monitoring, estimation, and cleanup, utilizing affordable and effective techniques. In this research, we explore the application of U-shaped neural Network (UNET) and U-shaped neural network transformer (UNETR) neural network models designed for the image segmentation of chemical and oil spills. Our models undergo training using the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) dataset and the Oil Spill Detection dataset, employing a specialized filtering technique to enhance detection accuracy. We achieved training accuracies of 95.35% and 91% by applying UNET on the Oil Spill and the CSIRO datasets after 50 epochs of training, respectively. We also achieved a training accuracy of 75% by applying UNETR to the Oil Spill dataset. Additionally, we integrated mixed precision to expedite the model training process, thus maximizing data throughput. To further accelerate our implementation, we propose the utilization of the Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) architecture. The results obtained from our study demonstrate improvements in inference latency on FPGA.
... In the US, because of structural racism, environmental pollution is racially segregated; causing Black and other minoritized populations to encounter greater exposures to environmental carcinogens. [28][29][30] Exposure to these various stressors or carcinogens is socially patterned and demonstrates the multiple and compounding ways structural racism can accumulate and become embodied in individuals belonging to racially minoritized groups, resulting in population-level disparities in cancer outcomes. 31 In the US, race reflects social stratification categories that imbue conditions that influence a person's chances of maintaining optimal health. ...
Background
Although racial disparities in lung cancer incidence and mortality have diminished in recent years, lung cancer remains the second most diagnosed cancer among US Black populations. Many factors contributing to disparities in lung cancer are rooted in structural racism. To quantify this relationship, we examined associations between a multidimensional measure of county-level structural racism and county lung cancer incidence and mortality rates among Black populations, while accounting for county levels of environmental quality.
Methods
We merged 2016-2020 data from the United States Cancer Statistics Data Visualization Tool, a pre-existing county-level structural racism index, the Environmental Protection Agency’s 2006-2010 Environmental Quality Index (EQI), 2023 County Health Rankings, and the 2021 United States Census American Community Survey. We conducted multivariable linear regressions to examine associations between county-level structural racism and county-level lung cancer incidence and mortality rates.
Results
Among Black males and females, each standard deviation increase in county-level structural racism score was associated with an increase in county-level lung cancer incidence of 6.4 (95% CI: 4.4, 8.5) cases per 100,000 and an increase of 3.3 (95% CI: 2.0, 4.6) lung cancer deaths per 100,000. When examining these associations stratified by sex, larger associations between structural racism and lung cancer rates were observed among Black male populations than among Black females.
Conclusion
Structural racism contributes to both the number of new lung cancer cases and the number of deaths caused by lung cancer among Black populations. Those aiming to reduce lung cancer cases and deaths should consider addressing racism as a root-cause.
... Therefore, our findings suggest that local policies for ongoing investment in early detection screening modalities for CRC should be prioritized for individuals living in the Clayton region. Worth further consideration, other factors that may also contribute to the observed differences of incidence across these regions include lifestyle-related factors (e.g., diet and obesity) [28], environmental exposures (e.g., agricultural runoff and industrial pollution) [29], and/or occupational exposures (e.g., mineral dust and trace elements) [30]. ...
The increase of early-onset colorectal cancer (CRC) among younger adults is a major public health concern. However, little is known about variations in CRC incidence across different age groups within small geographic areas in Georgia. We examined temporal trends of CRC incidence in Clayton, East Central, West Central, Northeast, and Southeast regions, by age groups. Annual incidence rates for CRC in individuals aged 15+ years during 2000-2020 in the five regions of Georgia were included. Temporal trends were examined within the five regions and stratified by age group. Joinpoint regression was employed to calculate the annual percent change and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Among 20,215 CRC diagnoses, CRC incidence declined over time for East Central (-2.33%; 95% CI,-3.03,-1.64), Northeast (-1.63%; 95% CI,-2.15,-1.04), Southeast (-1.63%; 95% CI,-2.30,-0.96), and West Central (-1.53%; 95% CI,-2.04,-1.03) Georgia. In the 15-44 age group, a notable increase of CRC incidence was found in Clayton, Northeast, and Southeast regions with a range of 2.2%-3.4%. However, adults aged 60+ years experienced a significant decrease in CRC incidence for most Georgia regions (all p-value <0.05), except for the Clayton region. In conclusion, CRC incidence declined during 2000-2020 in most Georgia regions. However, early-onset CRC is a major concern in Georgia as young adults (<45 years) living in Clayton, Northeast, and Southeast Georgia experienced significant annual increases in CRC incidence. Targeted CRC screening and awareness campaigns should be prioritized for adults <45 years and in the most impacted areas in Georgia.
... Small-area studies in California [25,26], Louisiana [27], Maryland [28], Missouri [29], Tennessee [30], and Texas [31,32] however, have examined population-level inequities in carcinogenic industrial pollution. These studies have shown disproportionate exposure among populations within urban areas and specific regions, including increased exposure to benzene and formaldehyde emissions among Black residents, and lower exposures to benzene, formaldehyde, and 1,3-butadiene Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jnci/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jnci/djae001/7511860 by guest on 05 February 2024 exposures with increasing median household income [27]. ...
... Small-area studies in California [25,26], Louisiana [27], Maryland [28], Missouri [29], Tennessee [30], and Texas [31,32] however, have examined population-level inequities in carcinogenic industrial pollution. These studies have shown disproportionate exposure among populations within urban areas and specific regions, including increased exposure to benzene and formaldehyde emissions among Black residents, and lower exposures to benzene, formaldehyde, and 1,3-butadiene Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jnci/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jnci/djae001/7511860 by guest on 05 February 2024 exposures with increasing median household income [27]. In Texas, the percentage of Hispanic population in a census block group or tract was associated with higher estimated exposure to the total sum of carcinogenic air pollutants [31,32]. ...
... We evaluated emissions burden for 21 individual carcinogens, with emphasis on 8 carcinogens emitted in at least 50 tracts. Comparable investigation of specific carcinogenic exposure patterns have only been evaluated in small-area studies, like those conducted in California [25], Louisiana [27], Maryland [28], Missouri [29], Tennessee [30], and Texas [31,32]. Similar to studies in Louisiana [27] and Tennessee [30], we observed disproportionate amounts of benzene and formaldehyde emissions among African Americans, and benzene, formaldehyde, and 1,3-butadiene emissions among low SES populations, showing that disparities in these emissions are not limited to the smaller geographic areas included in previous studies. ...
Background
Industrial facilities are not located uniformly across U.S. communities, but how the burden of exposure to carcinogenic air emissions may vary across population characteristics is unclear. We evaluated differences in carcinogenic industrial pollution among major sociodemographic groups in the U.S. and Puerto Rico.
Methods
We evaluated cross-sectional associations of population characteristics including race and ethnicity, educational attainment, and poverty at the census tract level with point-source industrial emissions of 21 known human carcinogens using regulatory data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) comparing the highest emissions (tertile or quintile) to the referent group (zero emissions/non-exposed) for all sociodemographic characteristics were estimated using multinomial, population density-adjusted logistic regression models.
Results
In 2018, approximately 7.4 million people lived in Census tracts with nearly 12 million pounds of carcinogenic air releases. The odds of tracts having the greatest burden of benzene, 1,3-butadiene, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, trichloroethylene, and nickel emissions compared to non-exposed were 10%-20% higher for African Americans, whereas White populations were up to 18% less likely to live in tracts with the highest emissions. Among Hispanics and Latinos, odds were 16%-21% higher for benzene, 1,3-butadiene, and ethylene oxide. Populations experiencing poverty or with less than high school education were associated with up to 51% higher burden, irrespective of race and ethnicity.
Conclusions
Carcinogenic industrial emissions disproportionately impact African Americans, Hispanics and Latinos, and people with limited education or experiencing poverty, thus representing a source of pollution that may contribute to observed cancer disparities.
... Covariates were selected a priori, and our primary model was adjusted for age (5-year age groups), race and ethnicity (non-Hispanic White; non-Hispanic Black; Hispanic; Asian, Pacific Islander, American Indian, Native Alaskan), smoking (never; former <1 pack/day, former 1-2 packs/day, former 2 or more packs/day; current or quit in past year <1 pack/day; current or quit in past year 1-2 packs/day; current or quit in past year 2 or more packs/day), body mass index (BMI; kg/m 2 ; continuous), catchment area, and educational attainment (high school or less, some college, college or postgraduate degree). Race and ethnicity were included as a confounder, as previous studies have demonstrated that minoritized populations tend to live in areas of higher exposure to PM 2.5 (20)(21)(22) and that individuals living in more segregated areas have higher exposure to carcinogenic air toxic pollutants (23). ...
Background:
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been inconsistently associated with breast cancer incidence, however few studies have considered historic exposure when levels were higher.
Methods:
Outdoor residential PM2.5 concentrations were estimated using a nationwide spatiotemporal model for women in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study, a prospective cohort located in 6 states (California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania) and 2 metropolitan areas (Atlanta, Georgia, and Detroit, Michigan) and enrolled in 1995-1996 (N = 196,905). Annual average PM2.5 concentrations were estimated for a 5-year historical period 10 years prior to enrollment (1980-1984). We used Cox regression to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) for the association between a 10 µg/m3 increase in PM2.5 and breast cancer incidence overall and by estrogen receptor (ER) status and catchment area.
Results:
With follow-up through 2017, 15,870 breast cancer cases were identified. A 10ug/m3 increase in PM2.5 was significantly associated with overall breast cancer incidence (HR = 1.08, CI: 1.02-1.13). The association was evident for ER + (HR = 1.10, 95% CI : 1.04-1.17), but not ER- tumors (HR = 0.97, CI: 0.84-1.13; p-heterogeneity = 0.3). Overall breast cancer HRs were >1 across the catchment areas; ranging from a HR = 1.26 (CI: 0.96-1.64) for North Carolina to a HR = 1.04 (CI: 0.68-1.57) for Louisiana (p-heterogeneity = 0.9).
Conclusions:
In this large U.S. cohort with historical air pollutant exposure estimates, PM2.5 was associated with risk of ER+ breast cancer. State-specific estimates were imprecise but suggest that future work should consider region-specific associations and the potential contribution of PM2.5 chemical constituency in modifying the observed association.
... Year placement of hazardous industries predominantly in low-income communities, communities of color, and other communities that experience structural discrimination [35,39,[66][67][68]. Several SCFs we identified are located in the Louisiana industrial corridor, commonly referred to as 'Cancer Alley' [69,70], where a recent EPA investigation found longstanding racial discrimination in the allowable emissions of toxic air pollutants and consequent adverse impacts to the health of Black residents [71]. The distributive justice issues observed for SCFs are consistent with those observed for other phases of the oil and gas production lifecycle across multiple geographic contexts [68,72]. ...
Background: Production of shale gas in the United States (US) increased more than 10-fold from 2008 to 2021, yielding greater quantities of hydrocarbon feedstocks and incentivizing expansion of petrochemical facilities. Steam crackers (SCs) convert hydrocarbon feedstocks into ethylene and propylene (the building blocks of plastics), while releasing toxic chemicals and greenhouse gases (GHGs). Analyses of environmental health and justice impacts of SCs are limited.
Methods: We described SC operations, locations, and emissions, and evaluated sociodemographic characteristics of populations residing near SCs to better understand potential public health hazards and inform future studies. We summarized and described industry-reported emissions from the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Release Inventory and GHG Reporting Program. We compared population characteristics of US Census block groups ≤5km and >5km from a steam cracker-containing facility (SCF) within the same county.
Results: We identified 32 SCFs across five US states, with most in Texas and Louisiana. Toxic chemicals with the greatest reported cumulative air emissions in 1987-2019 were: ethylene, propylene, hydrochloric acid, benzene, n-hexane, 1,3-butadiene, ammonia, toluene, vinyl acetate, and methanol. Reported total annual GHG emissions were 4% higher in 2019 versus 2010, with total GHG emissions of >650 million metric tons (carbon dioxide equivalents) in 2010-2019. We found that 752,465 people live in census block groups ≤5km from an SCF, regardless of county. Compared to block groups >5 km away within the same county, block groups closer to SCFs had statistically significantly lower median incomes ($54,843 vs $67,866) and more vacant housing (15% vs 11%), and higher proportions of residents who were non-Hispanic Black (31 vs 19%) and unemployed (8% vs 6%).
Conclusion: SCs emit substantial amounts of GHGs and toxic chemicals in locations with historically disadvantaged populations. Future research could further evaluate the accuracy of reported emissions, conduct monitoring in proximate communities, and assess population-level health impacts.
... We found fewer studies on the health outcomes associated with community-level exposure. The paucity of studies represents not only a substantial knowledge gap, but also a major environmental justice concern as EtO emitting facilities tend to be concentrated in socioeconomically disadvantaged and diverse communities (James et al., 2012;Wood & Howarth, 2022). It is possible that the excess exposure underscores the substantial health inequity experienced by residents in these communities, as socially disadvantaged communities often suffer the highest levels of environmental exposure and resulting poor health outcomes (Alvarez & Evans, 2021;Di Fonzo et al., 2022). ...
Background:
Although ethylene oxide (EtO) gas is designated as a human carcinogen, extant literature reports mixed findings on the health effects of exposure. The disparate findings may reflect industry bias as many studies were funded by a large chemical industry lobby.
Objective:
To conduct an integrative review of studies free from industry bias to facilitate compilation of a comprehensive list of reported signs and symptoms of EtO exposure.
Methods:
We reviewed 1887 papers of which 42 articles met inclusion criteria. The authors conducted this review in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. The presence of bias was assessed using Joanna Briggs Institute checklists.
Results:
Non-industry biased literature confirmed serious adverse health effects associated with EtO exposure at the occupational, hospital, and community level. EtO represents a carcinogen, neurotoxin, and respiratory irritant.
Conclusion:
After removal of industry-biased studies, EtO was unequivocally found to pose a threat to human health. There remains a gap in the number of studies examining community-level exposure, which is essential to understanding the impact of EtO. Given that EtO-emitting facilities are concentrated in diverse and disadvantaged communities, further study of EtO exposure health effects is warranted to inform public policy on toxic air emissions.
... One such grievous example is Cancer Alley, a nearly 100 mile stretch of land in southeastern Louisiana that is predominantly Black in population. This region accounts for nearly one-quarter of the nation's petrochemical production with carcinogenic emissions that pollute residents' and workers' air, water and bodies 50,52 , with the most racially segregated neighbourhoods tending to experience the highest cancer risks from air toxics and making southeast Louisiana a region with one of the highest cancer risks in the country 53 . ...
Environmental injustices have exposed our current system of reliance on polluting and toxic chemicals and chemistries as untenable and one whose risks and burdens are disproportionately borne by those who are disadvantaged. Aiming for effective interventions to create system-wide change, green chemistry and adjacent approaches are powerful leverage points to deeply address environmental injustices by changing the very nature of the molecular (for example, chemical, material, energy) basis of our economy and our society, obviating the need to rely on procedural systems that can either serve to enable progress or reinforce the status quo. Owing to the underlying chemical nature of many environmental injustices, green chemistry can play a role in advancing environmental justice towards a more equitable future.
