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Fig. S1. Bilateral striatum activation (peaks at 21, 20, −2 and −21, 23, 1) detected in the session-by-group interaction during the feedback period (i.e., success trials minus failure trials; P < 0.05, small-volume-corrected; image is shown at P < 0.001, uncorrected). Neural responses are displayed in transaxial and coronal formats. Plot for the individual session/group is depicted in Fig. 2.
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Contrary to the widespread belief that people are positively motivated by reward incentives, some studies have shown that performance-based extrinsic reward can actually undermine a person's intrinsic motivation to engage in a task. This "undermining effect" has timely practical implications, given the burgeoning of performance-based incentive syst...
Citations
... Activation in brain regions associated with autonomy and self-efficacy supports empowerment initiatives. Neurotransmitters like dopamine reinforce feelings of competence and reward [14]. ...
The Leadership Competency Model Drenica, developed by Çitaku and Ramadani in 2020, offers a comprehensive framework encompassing essential competencies crucial for effective leadership. However, validating the efficacy of these competencies necessitates exploring their neuroscientific underpinnings. This study conducted an extensive literature review to elucidate the neural mechanisms associated with each competency outlined in the Drenica model. The findings reveal a robust neuroscientific basis supporting these competencies, ranging from decision-making to communication and collaboration. Key neuroscientific validations include the role of prefrontal cortex activity and neurotransmitter balance in decision-making, the involvement of neural circuits in language processing and empathy for communication skills, and the contribution of neuroplasticity mechanisms to continuous learning and adaptability. Furthermore, the analysis underscores the importance of neurotransmitter systems such as dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin in shaping leadership behaviors across various competencies. Understanding the neural substrates of effective leadership allows organizations to tailor leadership development programs to enhance organizational outcomes and foster a culture of innovation and inclusivity. Integrating neuroscience into leadership studies holds promise for advancing the understanding of leadership effectiveness and facilitating evidence-based practices in leadership development. In essence, this study underscores the significance of the Drenica model as a versatile tool for leadership development, enriched by neuroscientific insights, thus paving the way for Neuoleadership-a paradigm that leverages neuroscientific principles to cultivate effective leadership behaviors and drive organizational success.
... It is known that the prefrontal region and striatum, which compose the frontostriatal loop, are involved in the generation of goal-directed, motivated behavior [14][15]. Previous studies have detected relationships between intrinsic motivation and the activity of the lateral prefrontal cortex in healthy subjects and patients with schizophrenia [15,20]. Additionally, the striatum, which receives input from midbrain dopaminergic neurons, was responsive to rewards [21] or to internal values even in the absence of an extrinsically rewarding stimulus [22]. ...
Background
Motivation dysregulation is common in several psychiatric disorders. However, little is known about the relationships between motivation and the regional brain areas involved. We evaluated the relationships between brain microstructural features and causality orientation in patients with schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD), and bipolar disorder (BD) using diffusional kurtosis imaging (DKI) techniques.
Methods
Forty patients with MDD, 36 with BD, and 30 with schizophrenia underwent DKI and assessment using the General Causality Orientation Scale (GCOS). We analyzed the DKI index and the GCOS subscales.
Results
The psychiatric patients showed significant positive correlations between the GCOS-autonomy orientation score and the mean kurtosis (MK) values in the prefrontal regions, orbitofrontal regions, and posterior cingulate cortex. When the analyses were performed separately by disease and gender, a positive correlation was found between the GCOS-autonomy orientation score and the MK values in the left prefrontal regions transdiagnostically, especially among female patients with MDD, BD, and schizophrenia.
Conclusions
A similar association between intrinsic motivation and MK value in the left prefrontal cortex was suggested in patients with schizophrenia, MDD, and BD. The commonality of this association among these disorders might lead to the discovery of a new biomarker for psychiatric clinical research.
... Although Twitter did not enforce users to quote instead of retweeting nor provide any explicit promotion or reward for quoting, the quoting encouragement policy may have influenced users' perceptions and served as a virtual external incentive for initiating quoting behavior. This phenomenon can be explained by the adaptive nature of the brain in perceiving rewards based on recent levels and ranges of rewards, fictive outcomes, social comparisons, and other relevant factors [35,36]. The motivation crowding theory offers a framework for discussing this observation. ...
This research holds significance for the fields of social media and communication studies through its comprehensive evaluation of Twitter’s quoting encouragement policy enacted during the 2020 U.S. presidential election. In addressing a notable gap in the literature, this study introduces a framework that assesses both the quantitative and qualitative effects of specific platform-wide policy interventions, an aspect lacking in existing research. Employing a big data approach, the analysis includes 304 million tweets from a randomly sampled cohort of 86,334 users, using a systematic framework to examine pre-, within-, and post-intervals aligned with the policy timeline. Methodologically, SARIMAX models and linear regression are applied to the time series data on tweet types within each interval, offering an examination of temporal trends. Additionally, the study characterizes short-term and long-term adopters of the policy using text and sentiment analyses on quote tweets. Results show a significant retweeting decrease and modest quoting increase during the policy, followed by a swift retweeting resurgence and quoting decline post-policy. Users with fewer connections or higher activity levels adopt quoting more. Emerging quoters prefer shorter, positive quote texts. These findings hold implications for social media policymaking, providing evidence for refining existing policies and shaping effective interventions.
... As far as the literature review allowed, studies analyzing the direct effect of tangible rewards on human motivation are rare. Murayama et al. (2010) investigated the neural basis of the first part of Deci and Ryan's (1985) CET, i.e., the decay of intrinsic motivation due to misapplied monetary rewards. They administered a timed task that participants performed over two periods. ...
Assessing the impact of personality traits and sociodemographic factors on employee motivation: a study in the sugarcane and bioenergy industry.
... [3][4][5]7 Importantly, accumu-lated evidence shows that music activates brain networks involved in emotion and reward and induces the release of dopamine. 8−11 Unlike other primary (e.g., food) or secondary reinforcers (e.g., money), which can downregulate the reward system over time, 12 music-an abstract reward-can induce maximal pleasure repeatedly, 13 making it suitable for spontaneous and/or direct mood regulation. 5,14,15 Music is also naturalistic, highly accessible, and known to induce reward-and emotion-related responses almost universally. ...
While certain musical genres and songs are widely popular, there is still large variability in the music that individuals find rewarding or emotional, even among those with a similar musical enculturation. Interestingly, there is one Western genre that is intended to attract minimal attention and evoke a mild emotional response: elevator music. In a series of behavioral experiments, we show that elevator music consistently elicits low pleasure and surprise. Participants reported elevator music as being less pleasurable than music from popular genres, even when participants did not regularly listen to the comparison genre. Participants reported elevator music to be familiar even when they had not explicitly heard the presented song before. Computational and behavioral measures of surprisal showed that elevator music was less surprising, and thus more predictable, than other well‐known genres. Elevator music covers of popular songs were rated as less pleasurable, surprising, and arousing than their original counterparts. Finally, we used elevator music as a control for self‐selected rewarding songs in a proof‐of‐concept physiological (electrodermal activity and piloerection) experiment. Our results suggest that elevator music elicits low emotional responses consistently across Western music listeners, making it a unique control stimulus for studying musical novelty, pleasure, and surprise.
... The former influences early rapid improvements in speed and accuracy, whereas the latter influences trainingbased enhancement 50 . However, the extrinsic monetary reward could undermine the intrinsic reward processing, lowering motivation or performance 51,52 . It would be fascinating to determine if the extrinsic reward inhibits or enhances the effect of intrinsic reward on motor learning, including long-term retention of motor memory. ...
Corticostriatal regions play a pivotal role in visuomotor learning. However, less research has been done on how fMRI activity in their subregions is related to task performance, which is provided as visual feedback during motor learning. To address this, we conducted an fMRI experiment in which participants acquired a complex de novo motor skill using continuous or binary visual feedback related to performance. We found a highly selective response related to performance in the entire striatum in both conditions and a relatively higher response in the caudate nucleus for the binary feedback condition. However, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) response was significant only for the continuous feedback condition. Furthermore, we also found functional distinction of the striatal subregions in random versus goal-directed motor control. These findings underscore the substantial effects of the visual feedback indicating performance on distinct corticostriatal responses, thereby elucidating its significance in reinforcement-based motor learning.
... How are these different motivational states represented in the brain? Previous neuroscience research often posited that the reward network in the brain, including the striatum, the substantia nigra, the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), is critical for intrinsic motivation (Di Domenico & Ryan, 2017;Lee & Reeve, 2017;Murayama et al., 2010;Reeve & Lee, 2019b)-the motivation for the pleasure of the task itself (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Given that approach goals typically increase positive emotional states (including intrinsic motivation), these studies thus suggest that the reward network shows greater activity when individuals pursue approach goals than avoidance goals. ...
... One challenge for these past studies is that most of them used monetary rewards as part of the tasks of approach (i.e., to earn money) and avoidance (i.e., not to lose money) manipulations. Given that the reward network is activated by the presence of monetary rewards (Adcock et al., 2006) as well as the pleasure of tasks (Murayama et al., 2010), it is not clear from these studies whether the observed activity of the reward network is due to gains/loss of monetary rewards versus changes in intrinsic motivation (inherent pleasure of tasks). In fact, Sakaki et al. (2023) showed that when participants were engaged in a game-like, intrinsically enjoyable task, the activation pattern in the reward network was different, depending on whether participants worked on the task for monetary incentives or just for the enjoyment of the task itself. ...
... In the present study, we conducted a neuroimaging experiment to examine whether and how the reward network in the brain is involved in approach versus avoidance goals by using a game-like, intrinsically motivating task. Participants completed a stopwatch task (a task that was proven to be intrinsically engaging for adults; Murayama et al., 2010Murayama et al., , 2013Sakaki et al., 2023) while being scanned in an MRI scanner. They were instructed that they could win or lose points during the stopwatch task depending on their performance, and their overall goal was to earn the total point of zero or larger than zero at the end of the experiments. ...
Psychological research on human motivation repeatedly observed that approach goals (i.e., goals to attain success) increase task enjoyment and intrinsic motivation more strongly than avoidance goals (i.e., goals to avoid failure). The present study sought to address how the reward network in the brain—including the striatum and ventromedial prefrontal cortex—is involved when individuals engage in the same task with a focus on approach or avoidance goals. Participants reported stronger positive emotions when they focused on approach goals, but stronger anxiety and disappointment when they focused on avoidance goals. The fMRI analyses revealed that the reward network in the brain showed similar levels of activity to cues predictive of approach and avoidance goals. In contrast, the two goal states were associated with different patterns of activity in the visual cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum during success and failure outcomes. Representation similarity analysis further revealed shared and different representations within the striatum and vmPFC between the approach and avoidance goal states, suggesting both the similarity and uniqueness of the mechanisms behind the two goal states. In addition, the distinct patterns of activation in the striatum were associated with distinct subjective experiences participants reported between the approach and the avoidance conditions. These results suggest the importance of examining the pattern of striatal activity in understanding the mechanisms behind different motivational states in humans.
... The results showed that memory enhancement due to monetary rewards was only significant for the low-interest questions. This phenomenon is referred to as the undermining effect in the reward and motivation studies (Deci et al., 1999;Murayama et al., 2010;Murayama and Kuhbandner, 2011;Swirsky et al., 2021), but to what extent a non-reward external factor and intrinsic interest interact to influence memory and forgetting is unclear. When they are included in the same study, due to the fact that attention and cognitive control processing is involved in both the effects of task demand and intrinsic motivation on memory (Murayama et al., 2010;Gruber and Ranganath, 2019;Gottlieb et al., 2014Gottlieb et al., , 2020, they may compete each other for the limited resources; thus, a similar undermining effect appears. ...
... This phenomenon is referred to as the undermining effect in the reward and motivation studies (Deci et al., 1999;Murayama et al., 2010;Murayama and Kuhbandner, 2011;Swirsky et al., 2021), but to what extent a non-reward external factor and intrinsic interest interact to influence memory and forgetting is unclear. When they are included in the same study, due to the fact that attention and cognitive control processing is involved in both the effects of task demand and intrinsic motivation on memory (Murayama et al., 2010;Gruber and Ranganath, 2019;Gottlieb et al., 2014Gottlieb et al., , 2020, they may compete each other for the limited resources; thus, a similar undermining effect appears. Clarifying this issue would help us understand whether there is a general mechanism for the interaction between external and internal impacts on memory. ...
The gist and details of an event are both important for us to establish and maintain episodic memory. On the other hand, episodic memory is influenced by both external and internal factors, such as memory cue and intrinsic motivation. To what extent these factors and their interaction modulate memory and forgetting of gist and detailed information remains unclear. In this study, 29 participants watched film clips accompanied by either gist or detailed cues and rated their interest in these clips. Their memories of gist and detailed information were tested after 10 min, 1 day, and 1 week. The results showed that memory cue modulated the forgetting of gist and detailed memories. Specifically, when gist cues were used, gist memory was forgotten more slowly than detailed memory. When detailed cues were used, detailed memory was forgotten more slowly than gist memory. Differently, the subjective interest in the clips enhanced memory accuracy irrespective of memory type but did not influence the forgetting of gist and detailed memories. Moreover, there was a significant interaction between memory cue and interest, showing that gist cues enhanced memory than detailed cues only for low-interest clips. These results suggest that external and internal factors have differential effects on memory and forgetting, and the effectiveness of external factors depends on the state of intrinsic motivation. The significant interplay of different factors in influencing the remembering or forgetting of gist and detailed memories provides potential ways to enhance memory and retention of gist and detailed information.
... The former influences early rapid improvements in speed and accuracy, whereas the latter influences training-based enhancement 42 . However, the extrinsic monetary reward could undermine the intrinsic reward processing, lowering motivation or performance 43,44 . It would be fascinating to determine if the extrinsic reward inhibits or enhances the effect of intrinsic reward on motor learning, including long-term retention of motor memory. ...
A corticostriatal network plays a pivotal role in visuomotor learning. However, it is unclear to what extent visual feedback for motor learning impacts corticostriatal activity. To address this, we conducted an fMRI experiment in which participants acquired a complex motor skill using either online or offline visual cursor feedback. We found a highly selective response in the entire striatum to visual performance feedback in both conditions and a relatively higher response in the caudate nucleus for the offline feedback. However, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) response was significant only for online feedback. Furthermore, we also found functional distinctions of the striatal subregions in random versus goaldirected motor control. These findings collectively underscore the substantial impact of such simple visual feedback, as designed in our study, in eliciting corticostriatal responses, thereby elucidating its significance in reinforcement-based motor learning.
... Through experimental neuroimaging results, Murayama et al. (2010) found that performancebased monetary rewards do erode individual intrinsic motivation, and the activity of the anterior striatum and medial brain regions will be weakened according to the enhancement of behavioral erosion effects. Research evidence suggests that the evaluation system of the basal ganglia of the human cerebral cortex plays a central role in this erosion effect, and that the evaluation system of the basal ganglia of the human cerebral cortex underlies the erosion effect by integrating the value of extrinsic reward with the value of intrinsic work. ...
... In fact, a review of the last 15 years of research based on cognitive neuroscience shows that the finding that rewards weaken intrinsic motivation is not irreconcilable with the finding that rewards help enhance intrinsic motivation. Both Murayama et al. (2010) and Ma (2014) et al.'s studies have confirmed that when monetary rewards are provided for interesting work without canceling the performance reward commitment to the reward group, the intrinsic motivation or brain activity of the reward group is stronger than that of the non-reward control group. The studies by et al. and Kouneiher (2009) et al. also confirmed that when the researchers canceled the rewards for the subjects in the next stage of the task, the brain activity of the subjects would decrease. ...
Innovation is the primary driving force for China's economic development and transformation. Innovation-driven strategy is the primary strategy for China's economic development. Enterprises are the main body of the market economy. Among them, employees are the source of enterprise development. How to promote employee creativity in enterprise management is also a key consideration for managers. Chinese enterprises are in an important period of compensation system reform. The innovation-driven development strategy urgently needs enterprises to reform the incentive system, and enterprises implement a pay for performance system to stimulate the creativity of employees. The academic research on pay for performance system and employee creativity is also relatively mature. This paper attempts to explore the research progress of pay for performance system on employee creativity from four perspectives: economics, cognitive psychology, behavioral psychology and cognitive neuroscience. And on the basis of comparative analysis, the nonlinear thinking of researchers in this field on the relationship between pay for performance and employee creativity is discussed.
