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A rapeseed vegetable oil, pure and blended with conventional FCC feedstock, has been catalytically cracked with a commercial equilibrium catalyst under realistic FCC conditions. The rapeseed oil can be converted into gasoline- and diesel-range hydrocarbons that are low in sulfur and nitrogen. The triglycerides are predominately converted within 50...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... low-erucic type of rapeseed oil (RSO), also known as canola oil, has been selected as vegetable oil. The typical fatty acid composition of this feed has been determined and is shown in Table 1. ...
Context 2
... simulated distillation chromatogram in Fig. 3a demon- strates that (as expected) the rapeseed oil feed cannot be regarded as a single component. Due to a range of the fatty acid constituents (see Table 1) that can be linked to the glycerol backbone in different combinations a variety of vegetable oil molecules can be formed. Another possibility is that during the simulated distillation analysis the rapeseed oil is subject to in situ decomposition, thereby resulting in the observed spectrum. ...
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Citations
... The process is carried out within 2.5 hours and at a temperature of 450 o C. The yield is relatively high at 56-78%. (Dupain et al., 2007) conducted direct cracking of rapeseed oil under FCC (fluidized catalytic cracking) conditions with operating conditions of 465-585 o C. However, the yield is relatively low around 15-34%. ...
Crude Palm Oil (CPO) is a potential feedstock for biokerosene. However, it is problematic when used directly because it is gummy, has a high viscosity and is degradable. Various conversion processes have been conducted that directly convert CPO into biokerosene, but it requires high temperature and pressure. Therefore, as a novelty, this study aims to develop the technology for converting triglycerides into biokerosene under relatively low operating conditions and producing similar petroleum kerosene by electrolysis-assisted and electromagnetic induction. In this study, the conversion technology process was conducted in three steps (i) converting triglycerides to Free Fatty Acids (FFA), (ii) converting FFA to alkanes, and (iii) converting alkanes to biokerosene. Step (ii) is assisted by the electrolysis process, meanwhile, step (iii) is assisted by electromagnetic irradiation. The finding showed that electrolysis obtained 73.47% yield of alkanes and electromagnetic irradiation obtained 78.02% yield of biokerosene. Biokerosene is almost close to kerosene-based petroleum in terms of colour Saybolt, flash point and Net Heating Value. The findings of this study may provide an alternate technology approach for biokerosene synthesis and solution kerosene scarcity.
... A major finding was presented that vegetable oils were best for steel while mineral-based lubricants were better lubricants for cast iron. Figure 13 illustrates the molecular structure of the polar fatty acids present inside the triglyceride configuration that assists in anti-wear properties [169]. The strong lubrication film that is developed along the surface of the workpiece and grinding wheel is the main cause of the reduction in frictional forces and wheel defects [13,161,170]. ...
Conventional lubrication systems are used in grinding operations to reduce friction and defects produced during machining. Mineral-based oils, commonly used as conventional lubricants, were observed to produce greenhouse wastes that are hazardous to the environment. The minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) system, an eco-friendly, economical, and less hazardous lubrication technique, is affirmed to be an efficient substitute for these conventional lubricants. Nevertheless, the pure vegetable and synthetic oils used in MQL systems have lower tribological and thermal evacuation properties compared to conventional lubricants. Many adjustments and improvements have been introduced into the MQL system such as the introduction of nanofluids, cryogenic air, ionic fluids, and electrostatic atomization. This study aims to come up with an extensive review and analytical assessment of the trends and developments of the MQL system in grinding operations. Firstly, the different advances ranging from fluid types, additives, and redesigns of the MQL systems are discussed. Likewise, the results obtained from using different types of lubricants and nanofluids in the MQL system were discussed. Moreover, a detailed comparative assessment of the grinding performances between the MQL systems, dry grinding, and conventional lubrication was provided. It was found that the nanofluid MQL system produced 60% lower surface roughness and reduced the grinding forces by 30% compared to flood cooling systems. Lastly, the area of focus for research on grinding with MQL system for future advancements was proposed. The various advancements include the introduction of nanofluid varieties and the overall modification of the grinding system.
... Moreover, the route of the intermediate compounds varies based on catalyst. In addition, the high amount of aromatic formations predominately favors the LCO and LHCO boiling ranges that led the competitions among the triglyceride transformations under different catalytic cracking mechanisms [71]. The routes of the catalytic cracking mechanisms for heavy oxygenated compounds produce various classes of hydrocarbons, paraffinic fragments, and lower aromatics [72]. ...
This review provides the recent advances in triglyceride catalytic pyrolysis using heterogeneous dolomite catalysts for upgrading biofuel quality. The production of high-quality renewable biofuels through catalytic cracking pyrolysis has gained significant attention due to their high hydrocarbon and volatile matter content. Unlike conventional applications that require high operational costs, long process times, hazardous material pollution, and enormous energy demand, catalytic cracking pyrolysis has overcome these challenges. The use of CaO, MgO, and activated dolomite catalysts has greatly improved the yield and quality of biofuel, reducing the acid value of bio-oil. Modifications of the activated dolomite surface through bifunctional acid–base properties also positively influenced bio-oil production and quality. Dolomite catalysts have been found to be effective in catalyzing the pyrolysis of triglycerides, which are a major component of vegetable oils and animal fats, to produce biofuels. Recent advances in the field include the use of modified dolomite catalysts to improve the activity and selectivity of the catalytic pyrolysis process. Moreover, there is also research enhancement of the synthesis and modification of dolomite catalysts in improving the performance of biofuel yield conversion. Interestingly, this synergy contribution has significantly improved the physicochemical properties of the catalysts such as the structure, surface area, porosity, stability, and bifunctional acid–base properties, which contribute to the catalytic reaction’s performance.
... A major component in vegetable oils is triglycerides, which consist of three fatty acid chains connected to a glycerol backbone through the carboxyl group [1]. All the double bonds are positioned in the cis configuration in fresh vegetable oils. ...
Vegetable oils provide lipids and nutrition and provide foods with a desirable flavor, color, and crispy texture when used to prepare fried foods. However, the oil quality is degraded at elevated temperatures, and thus must be examined frequently because of the damage to human health. In this study, sunflower, soybean, olive, and canola oils were examined, and their properties were measured periodically at different elevated temperatures. The unsaturated triglyceride in oils reacted with the environmental oxygen or water vapor significantly changes in optical absorbance, viscosity, electrical impedance, and acid value. We used defect kinetics to analyze the evolution of these oil properties at elevated temperatures. The optical absorbance, viscosity, and electrical impedance follow the second-order, first-order, and zeroth-order kinetics, respectively. The rate constants of the above kinetics satisfy the Arrhenius equation. Olive oil has the lowest rate of color center and dynamic viscosity among the four oils, with the smallest pre-exponential factor and the largest activation energy, respectively. The rate constants of acid reaction also satisfy the Arrhenius equation. The activation energies of the polar compound and acid reaction are almost the same, respectively, implying that the rate constant is controlled by a pre-exponential factor if four oils are compared. Olive oil has the largest rate constant of acid reaction among the four oils, with the lowest pre-exponential factor.
... The formation of water is a good indication that the teak wood char catalyst can crack Jatropha oil into shorter chains. Water is always formed in the cracking process of vegetable oils as found in research of [16] and [17]. Based on [18] water is formed as a result of the release of oxygen content in triglycerides during the cracking process of Jatropha oil through a mechanism as presented in FIGURE 2. In addition, oxygen in triglycerides is also released into other molecules such as CO and CO2. ...
Teak wood char has been tested in the catalytic cracking process of Jatropha oil. The activity of teak wood char is increased by adding acid sites to the catalyst. The chemical salt of ammonium chloride serves as an acid-adding agent on the surface of the catalyst. The wood char is contacted with ammonium chloride solution with various concentrations of 1 M, 2M and 3 M and then separated by filtration. Before use in the cracking process, the wood char is activated by heating at high temperatures. The testing process was carried out at a temperature of 400oC with a hydrogen gas flow rate of 100 NL/min and an oil feed injection rate of 2 ml every 10 minutes. The experimental results show that the addition of acid sites on the surface of the teak wood char catalyst can increase the yield of oil liquid products and selectivity towards gasoline and diesel. The highest mass fraction of gasoline is 19.24% and diesel is 33.77%.
... Besides, the acid sites of the catalyst promote deoxygenation reactions such as decarbonylation, decarboxylation, and others during the cracking process of WCO, resulting in a lower production of oxygenated substances. These findings match those of [52][53][54][55] in terms of the importance and influence of catalysts on the chemical composition of liquids products. ...
The conversion of waste cooking oil to biofuel is appealing as it encompasses waste management and the introduction of an alternative clean source of energy. The biofuels market will prosper with the increasing demand for fuels, environmental laws and concerns, and energy security issues. This research aims to increase the hydrocarbon yield in catalytic cracking of waste cooking oil over acid-modified activated carbon. Sulfuric acid is used as an acid-modifying agent to increase the surface acidity of coconut-shell–activated carbon with varying acid concentrations. The modified catalysts have been characterized by BET, SEM–EDX, XRD, FTIR, TPD-NH3, and TGA. The performance of the acid-treated catalysts has been compared with that of pristine activated carbon and non-catalytic processes. It was found that increasing the acid concentration during preparation increased the liquid yields while lowering gas output. In the present study, using a 20% sulfonated AC catalyst gave the highest alkene fraction (36%) in the hydrocarbon yield. Hence, acid modification with sulfuric acid could be regarded as a low-cost and simple pre-treatment step for activated carbon in order to increase its acidity for better catalytic cracking performance.
... The DFB system also has the interesting advantage over tubular reactors that the coke deposits on the bed material are continuously removed by oxidation within the combustor [44]. Several studies on the cracking of vegetable oils under FCC conditions can be found in the literature [45,46]. In the FCC process, the triglyceride molecules in vegetable oils are converted to aliphatic hydrocarbons on the surface of a catalyst. ...
... The rapeseed oil used in this work was obtained from a local supermarket in Gothenburg, Sweden. Rapeseed oil used in this work presents an elemental composition in weight of 79.6% C, 11.4% H, 8.97% O, and 0.03% S. The elemental composition of the rapeseed oil presented here was calculated based on the average FA composition of rapeseed oil found in the literature [45,[53][54][55]. The physical properties and elemental composition of the bed material used in this work, as provided by the supplier, are presented in Table S1 (Supplementary information). ...
Fossil-based production of plastics represents a serious sustainability challenge. The use of renewable and biogenic resources as feedstocks in the plastic industry is imminent. Thermochemical conversion enables the production of the molecular building blocks of plastic materials from widely available biogenic resources. Waste cooking oil (WCO) represents a significant fraction of these resources. This work provides insights into the thermochemical conversion of the fatty acids present in WCO, where rapeseed oil is used as the source of fatty acids. The experimental results reveal that fluidized bed steam cracking of rapeseed oil in the temperature range of 650–750 °C yields a product distribution rich in light olefins and mono aromatics. Up to 51% of light olefins, 15% of mono aromatics, and 13% of light paraffins were recovered through steam cracking. This means that up to 70% of the carbon in rapeseed oil was converted into molecular building blocks in a single step. The main conclusion from this study is that WCO and vegetable oils represent viable biogenic feedstocks for the direct production of the molecular building blocks, where the conversion is achieved through steam cracking in fluidized beds.
Graphical abstract
... The elemental composition of the rapeseed oil, as presented in Table 2, was calculated based on the average FA composition of rapeseed oil listed in the literature. [64][65][66][67] Seven different bed materials were tested in this thesis; Al2O3; 1Fe/Al2O3; 2Fe/Al2O3; 5Fe/Al2O3; bauxite; olivine; and silica sand. The chemical compositions of the bed materials are listed in Table 3. ...
Plastic materials are crucial to the supply of everyday necessities, such as clothes, packaging, and building materials. Most plastic materials are disposed of after a short period of use due to their low cost of production. The linear use of plastics has resulted in high levels of plastic waste materials. In addition, the production of plastics is largely dependent upon fossil resources. A paradigm shift in relation to the production and management of plastic waste is necessary for the development of a sustainable plastic usage.
Plastic waste is challenging to recycle, given its inherent heterogeneous nature. In this context, recycling using thermochemical processes is a promising approach towards fossil-free production of new plastics of original quality from the abundantly available plastic waste. For this application, steam cracking in a dual fluidized bed (DFB) reactor is a suitable process owing to its flexibility. This work focuses on strengthening the position of the DFB steam cracking technology in the recycling of plastic waste. Experimental studies were conducted on steam cracking of polyethylene, a polyolefin, and rapeseed oil, a polyolefin-like feedstock, in a laboratory reactor under operating conditions similar to that of a DFB system. The suitability of such feedstocks for the DFB steam cracking process is discussed with respect to the distribution of the obtained products. The influence of the bed material on the steam cracking reactions of polyolefins is also examined.
The results presented in this thesis demonstrate that steam cracking in a DFB system is a suitable process for the recycling of polyolefin and polyolefin-type feedstocks. Steam cracking of such feedstocks yields a product distribution that is similar to that obtained from thermal cracking of petroleum naphtha. Experiments investigating the influences of the bed material on the steam cracking reactions reveal that the activity of the bed material towards the hydrogen transfer (C-H bond scission) reactions is a critical parameter for the process.
An increase in the catalytic activity of the bed material towards the hydrogen transfer reactions results in either dehydrogenation or hydrogenation of the polyolefin feedstock. Dehydrogenation is associated with the oxidizing nature of the bed material, and results in the formation of compounds with H/C ratios <2. In contrast, hydrogenation promoted by the bed material leads to the enhanced formation of compounds with H/C ≥2. Hydrogenation was observed in the presence of a reduced bed material and was associated with the water dissociation and hydrogen transfer capabilities of the bed material. Extensive experimental results supporting these findings are discussed throughout the thesis.
... The addition of controlled amounts of oxygenated molecules during cracking seems ineffective in decreasing the lifetime of the catalysts [43,45]. Therefore, it can be important to further study the cracking of other oxygenated molecules such as fatty acid ester under conditions close to that of FCC process [46]. ...
One way to take advantage from out-of-specification biodiesel and waste from biodiesel tank bottom drainage is to co-process them in a fluidized catalytic cracking (FCC) unit. The present work deals with the cracking of oleic acid methyl ester (OAME) as a biodiesel model, under conditions close to that of FCC process over ZSM-5 and Y zeolites, either in protonated or sodium forms, towards deoxygenated compounds. Catalytic fast cracking of OAME pre-adsorbed on the catalyst surface was performed, with a catalyst:OAME mass ratio of 10:1 in a micro-pyrolysis system at 650 °C, coupled to a GC/MS for on line analysis of the products. Results show that the cracking of OAME without a catalyst favored the formation of linear alkenes and polyenes. Fast cracking of OAME over HZSM-5 and HY acidic zeolites led to the production of aromatics, due to hydrogen transfer. Cracking over NaY and HY zeolites produced remarkable amounts of ramified saturated hydrocarbons. The formation of alkylated hydrocarbons was not significant over ZSM-5 zeolite probably due to a small pore size of this zeolite. NaY catalyst favored the production of hydrocarbons in the range of kerosene (C8–C12). Low acidic zeolites favored the production of non-aromatic hydrocarbons. Product distribution was affected by catalyst shape selectivity and acidity. These results suggest that residues from the biodiesel chain can be directly co-processed in FCC units to obtain high value hydrocarbons, mainly in the jet fuel and gasoline ranges.
Graphic Abstract
... The presence of a small amount of water was considered to come from a small number of oxygen atoms in the hydroxyl group (-COO) of fatty acids that were not bound by metal. At the same time, the hydrogen atom was obtained from dehydrogenation of the C-C atomic bond, which leads to more double bonds and further forms aromatic compounds [31]. ...
A B S T R A C T
Pyrolysis is one of the available technologies to convert oleic basic soap into gasoline-compatible fuel. In this research, the process mentioned was applied using the mixture of Ca, Mg, Zn in the production of oleic basic soap. The reactions were carried out in a batch glass reactor at atmospheric pressure at the temperature of 450 °C. Meanwhile, the basic soaps were made by reacting oleic acid mixed with metal hydroxides. The parameters observed were the Research Octane Number (RON) of bio-gasoline and the hydrocarbon content in the liquid product. The higher the octane number is, the better gasoline resists detonation and the smoother the engine runs. As observed, pyrolysis of oleic basic soap produced gasoline range hydrocarbon. GC-DHA results indicated that the highest RON (89.6) was achieved with Ca/Mg/Zn ratio of 0.15:0.85:1 (Ca-metal ratio of 0.15 mole). The products of the pyrolysis process comprised bio-hydrocarbon, solid residue, water, and gas. The bio-hydrocarbon contents were paraffin (5.9 wt%), iso-paraffin (31.3 wt%), olefin (18.5 wt%), naphthene(25.3 wt%), and aromatic compounds (15.3 wt%).
