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alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a major dietary (n-3) fatty acid. Some clinical trials with ALA supplementation have shown reduced cardiovascular risk; however the specific cardioprotective mechanism is not known. We studied the effects of daily supplementation with ALA derived from flaxseed oil on concentrations of plasma LDL cholesterol, HDL choles...
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... were taught how to complete a 3-d food diary, and the records were analyzed for compliance with the diet using a standard food-record rating procedure (Nutritionist V). After 8 wk of following the AHA diet, participants were randomized to either a treatment group that was given 3 g of ALA (5.2 g of flaxseed oil) per day in the form of flaxseed oil capsules (Rx Vitamins) or a control group that was given 5.2 g of olive oil per day in the form of olive oil capsules (Oleomed) ( Table 1). The 3-g dose of ALA was selected because it is the maximal dose generally regarded as safe (GRAS) by the FDA. ...
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Although assumed, it remains unclear that fatty acid (FA) biomarkers of n-3 long-chain PUFA reflect wide ranges of intake. However, to be utilised as biomarkers, to predict dietary intake, dose-response curves that cover a spectrum of intakes are required. The aim of the study was to investigate whether the FA composition of...
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... It has been suggested that elevated TG levels are independent risk factors for the progression of CVD [48]. In addition, smaller diameter LDL and HDL particles have been associated with increased risk [49,50]. The 'Omega-3 index' [51], which describes the content of EPA and DHA in red blood cell (RBC) membranes, expressed as a proportion of total FAs, has been considered a risk factor for death from coronary heart disease (CHD) [52]. ...
... Smaller diameter and denser LDL particles, such as LDL-3 subfraction, have been shown to be more susceptible to oxidation [50]. In addition, they have an increased ability to penetrate the intima than larger, less dense LDL particles, such as LDL-1 and LDL-2 subfractions [50] and have, therefore, been associated with an increased coronary heart disease risk [50]. ...
... Smaller diameter and denser LDL particles, such as LDL-3 subfraction, have been shown to be more susceptible to oxidation [50]. In addition, they have an increased ability to penetrate the intima than larger, less dense LDL particles, such as LDL-1 and LDL-2 subfractions [50] and have, therefore, been associated with an increased coronary heart disease risk [50]. A very recent systematic review concluded that small dense LDL are associated with an increased CVD risk [64]. ...
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) that includes myocardial infarction and stroke, is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Atherosclerosis, the primary underlying cause of CVD, can be controlled by pharmacological and dietary interventions, including n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) supplementation. n-3 PUFA supplementation, primarily consisting of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), has shown promise in reducing atherosclerosis by modulating risk factors, including triglyceride levels and vascular inflammation. n-3 PUFAs act by replacing pro-inflammatory fatty acid types in cell membranes and plasma lipids, by regulating transcription factor activity, and by inducing epigenetic changes. EPA and DHA regulate cellular function through shared and differential molecular mechanisms. Large clinical studies on n-3 PUFAs have reported conflicting findings, causing confusion among the public and health professionals. In this review, we discuss important factors leading to these inconsistencies, in the context of atherosclerosis, including clinical study design and the differential effects of EPA and DHA on cell function. We propose steps to improve clinical and basic experimental study design in order to improve supplement composition optimization. Finally, we propose that understanding the factors underlying the poor response to n-3 PUFAs, and the development of molecular biomarkers for predicting response may help towards a more personalized treatment.
... The previous studies demonstrated that low-ratio LA/ALA effectively decreased TC, TG, and LDL-C levels, as well as increased HDL-C levels [55][56][57][58]. In addition, several trials also reported that low-ratio LA/ALA did not show to affect lipid profiles [59,60]. Thus, the aim of this meta-analysis was to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness of low-ratio LA/ALA supplementation in improving blood lipid profiles. ...
This meta-analysis aimed to investigate the impact of low-ratio linoleic acid/alpha-linolenic acid (LA/ALA) supplementation on the blood lipid profiles in adults. We conducted a systematic search for relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing the effects of low-ratio LA/ALA using databases including PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and Web of Science, as well as screened related references up until February 2023. The intervention effects were analyzed adopting weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI). The meta-analysis indicated that low-ratio LA/ALA supplementation decreased total cholesterol (TC, WMD: −0.09 mmol/L, 95% CI: −0.17, −0.01, p = 0.031, I2 = 33.2%), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C, WMD: −0.08 mmol/L, 95% CI: −0.13, −0.02, p = 0.007, I2 = 0.0%), and triglycerides (TG, WMD: −0.05 mmol/L, 95% CI: −0.09, 0.00, p = 0.049, I2 = 0.0%) concentrations. There was no significant effect on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration (HDL-C, WMD: −0.00 mmol/L, 95% CI: −0.02, 0.02, p = 0.895, I2 = 0.0%). Subgroup analysis showed that low-ratio LA/ALA supplementation significantly decreased plasma TC, LDL-C, and TG concentrations when the intervention period was less than 12 weeks. In the subgroup analysis, a noteworthy decrease in both TC and LDL-C levels was observed in individuals receiving low-ratio LA/ALA supplementation in the range of 1–5. These findings suggest that this specific range could potentially be effective in reducing lipid profiles. The findings of this study provide additional evidence supporting the potential role of low-ratio LA/ALA supplementation in reducing TC, LDL-C, and TG concentrations, although no significant impact on HDL-C was observed.
... These studies brought inconsistent results. Despite a double blinded trial in 56 participants without coronary heart disease brought a clear evidence that daily consumption of flaxseed oil capsule (5.2 g) increased the plasma concentrations of cardioprotective (n-3) FA in humans [86], the same flaxseed oil capsule supplementation did not affect plasma lipoprotein concentration or particle size and increased circulating TC levels in human subjects [87]. In addition, a 12-weeks supplementation with 2 g flaxseed oil capsule exerted no effect on the plasma levels of TC, HDL-C, LDL-C and triglycerides (TG) in 86 healthy males and females in a double blinded, placebo controlled clinical study [88]. ...
A variety of vegetable and fruit derived food oils are considered beneficial for human health due to their content of functional components including their positive effects in cardiovascular system. In addition to the favorable ratio of unsaturated versus saturated fatty acids, some of these oils include also other health beneficial compounds such as vitamins, minerals, pigments, enzymes and phenolic compounds. Particularly polyphenols have been documented to exert numerous positive effects in cardiovascular system including their anti-hypertensive, anti-atherogenic as well as cardio- and vasculo- protective effects in subjects suffering from various cardiovascular and cardiometabolic diseases, likely via their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-coagulant, anti-proliferative and anti-diabetic properties. However, it has not been proven so far whether the positive cardiovascular effects of polyphenol-rich food oils are, and to what measure, attributed to their phenolic content. Thus, the current review aims to summarize the main cardiovascular effects of major polyphenol-rich food oils including olive, flaxseed, soybean, sesame and coconut oils, and to uncover the role of their phenolic compounds in these effects.
... However, various animal studies have indicated that flaxseed oil can decrease cholesterol levels in mice but it has no effect on rabbit cholesterol (Dupasquier et al., 2007). It has also been shown that ALA derived from flaxseed oil did not decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease and had no effect on the level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and TG after 26 weeks of treatment (Harper et al., 2006). ...
Hyperlipidemia affects a significant number of patients despite treatment with cholesterol-lowering drugs. Due to the low efficacy of synthetic drugs, there is a need for new agents with low side effects. Therefore, the effects of flaxseeds oil and animal omega-3 on the hyperlipidemic rats were investigated. Forty male Wistar rats were assigned to four groups (n=10): 1) control group that was fed with a standard diet (pallets). 2) high-fat diet (HFD) control group that was fed with high-fat food for 42 days, 3) Omega-3 group that received HFD for 21 days, followed by HFD +omega-3 capsule (600 mg/kg; 21 days/gavage), and 4) flaxseed oil group that received HFD for 21 days, followed by HFD +flaxseed oil (10 ml/kg; 21 days/gavage). Blood samples were collected three times and at the stages one to third of the experiment from the rats’ tail. The results showed that high levels of fat significantly increased cholesterol, triglyceride (TG), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in the flaxseed, HFD control, and omega-3 groups in the second stages of the experiment. Inverse, omega-3 or flaxseed oil supplementation decreased cholesterol, TG, and LDL levels and increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) level in comparison with the HFD control group in the third stages of the experiment. There was no significant difference in the studied parameters between the flaxseed- and omega-3-treated groups. It can be concluded that flaxseed oil similar to omega-3 is effective in the treatment of hyperlipidemia.
... Regarding the fat content, chia seed is a great source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as α-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3n-3, more than 60% [11]- [14] and linoleic acid (LA, C18:2n-6 approximately 20%) acids, presenting a very low ω-6/ω-3 ratio (around 0.30) [5], [15], [16]. However, the oil content and the amount of oleic, α-linoleic and α-linolenic acids depends on the region of cultivation [9], [17]. ...
The desirability of functional foods proceeds alongside non-communicable epidemic; diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, obesity and interrelated risk factors. Consequently, research on chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) has increased not only as seeds but also as oil due to their rich functional and nutritional proprieties. Chia seed is rich in essential fatty acids such as α-linolenic (ALA) and α-linoleic acids (LA) with ALA being the biological precursor to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). ALA is a plant-based essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids that must be obtained through the diet since humans do not possess the enzymes to synthesize the compound. The objective of this review was to identify the beneficial effects of chia seeds derived ALA and LA on human health. From the articles reviewed; it was observed that ALA and LA from chia seed could offer benefits for example; anti-obesity, improvement in glucose homeostasis, athletic performance, and anti-cholesterolemic effects and maintenance of healthy serum lipid level. Furthermore, some articles reported anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects and anti-oxidant activity, which could strengthen the prevention of chronic diseases. Although these benefits are appealing to humans, mechanistic cell culture and animal models are required to enhance our knowledge on their mode of action
... Previous studies are heterogeneous particularly in relation to comparators, study types, dosages and eligible participants with a high number of crossover trials. Existing studies include a variety of subjects ranging from healthy, overweight and obese, otherwise (Asif 2011, Del Bo et al. 2019, Ghafoor et al. 2018, Ghazani and Marangoni 2016, Harper, Edwards, and Jacobson 2006, Kuhnt et al. 2016, Lane et al. 2020, Sabudak 2007. ...
Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids offer a plethora of health benefits with the majority of evidence showing beneficial effects from marine sources of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Emerging research examines the effects of n-3 dietary intakes on blood markers of vegetarians and vegans, but official guidance for plant based marine alternatives is yet to reach consensus. This scoping review provides an overview of trials investigating bioavailability of plant n-3 oils including EPA and DHA conversion. Searches of MEDLINE, PubMed, CINAHL and clinical trial registers identified randomized controlled trials from January 2010 to September 2020. The 'Omega-3 index' (EPA + DHA (O3I)), was used to compare n-3 status, metabolic conversion and bioavailability. Two reviewers independently screened articles and extracted data on outcomes. From 639 identified articles, screening and eligibility checks gave 13 articles. High dose flaxseed or echium seed oil supplements, provided no increases to O3I and some studies showed reductions. However, microalgal oil supplementation increased O3I levels for all studies. Findings indicate preliminary advice for vegetarians and vegans is regular consumption of preformed EPA and DHA supplements may help maintain optimal O3I. Further studies should establish optimum EPA and DHA ratios and dosages in vegetarian and vegan populations.
... Even though flax s eed h as h igh c ontents o f a ntioxidant n utrients (e.g. Beta carotene), the traditional flax seed oil is oxidized after being extracted and purified (Singh, 2011) [13] . General information about the content of flax seed oil is stated in Table 2. ...
Flax seed oil is important food and nutrition sources. It has a low content of saturated fatty acids (9% of all the fatty acids), a moderate content of single saturated fatty acids (about 18%) and a high content of unsaturated fatty acids (about 73%). This oil can be used as a nutritional supplement and is significant in respect of containing omega-3 fatty acid, especially a high level of ALA and a low level of omega-6 fatty acids. The protein content of flax seed varies between 20-30%, and it contains a high level of globulin (linin and conlinin) and gluten. The proportion of non-protein nitrogen constitutes 21.7% of the total nitrogen content. The total nitrogen content has been reported as 3.25g/100 grams of seed. Today, flax seed stands out among the functional additives in the food industry due to the presence of α-linolenic acid, lignans and fibers in its content. Among the oils obtained from seeds, flax seed comes into prominence since it has high contents of α-linoleic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) and lignans. Flax seed contains oil by 35-45%, and 45-52% of it consists of ALA. ALA is classified as omega-3 group fatty acid and has anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic and antiarrhythmic characteristics.
... Flax oil administered to firefighters in doses of 1.2, 2.4, and 3.6 g/d for 12 weeks did not produce any significant changes in the serum levels of TC, HDL-C, and TG. 45 Flax oil administered to 56 noncoronary artery disease individuals, in doses containing 3-g ALA for 26 weeks, significantly reduced TC levels (4.95 AE 0.99 vs. 5.43 AE 0.00 mmol/dL). 46 However, these investigators did not find any significant change in the serum levels of HDL-C, LDL-C, and TG. ALA did not affect LDL particle size. ...
This paper describes the effects of flaxseed and its components (flax oil, secoisolariciresinoldiglucoside[SDG], flax lignan complex [FLC], and flax fibers] on serum lipids (total cholesterol [TC], low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol [LDL-C], high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C], and triglycerides [TG]) in animals and humans. Ordinary flaxseed reduces TG, TC, LDL-C, and TC/HDL-C levels in a dose-dependent manner in animals. In humans, it reduces serum lipids in hypercholesterolemicpatients but has no effects in normocholesterolemicpatients. Flax oil has variable effects on serum lipids in normo- and hypercholesterolemic animals. Flax oil treatment, with a dosage containing greater than 25 g/day of α-linolenic acid, reduces serum lipids in humans. Although FLC reduces serum lipids and raises serum HDL-C in animals, its effects on serum lipids in humans are small and variable. Flax fibers exert small effects on serum lipids in humans. Crop Development Centre (CDC)-flaxseed, which contains low concentrations of α-linolenic acid, has significant lipid lowering effects in animals. Pure SDG has potent hypolipidemic effects and raises HDL-C. In conclusion, flaxseed and pure SDG have significant lipid-lowering effects in animals and humans, while other components of flaxseed have small and variable effects.
... In a study of 56 patients without known coronary heart disease, they were assigned to receive 5.2 g flaxseed oil (3 g/d of ALA), or 5.2 g of olive oil as control per day for 26 weeks. At the end of the study there was no effect of flaxseed oil on atherogenic LDL subfractions (LDL 3 and LDL 4 ); however, flaxseed oil significantly increased the less atherogenic LDL subfractions (LDL 1 and LDL 2 ) as compared to the control olive oil [71] (Table 2). Overall, in 3 out of 5 studies reviewed here, LDL particle size significantly increased after the intervention; however, in 2 studies out of 6 studies sdLDL was significantly decreased though other studies did not find any significant changes. ...
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are globally the major causes of morbidity and mortality. Evidence shows that smaller and denser low-dense lipoprotein (sdLDL) particles are independent atherogenic risk factors for CVD due to their greater susceptibility to oxidation, and permeability in the endothelium of arterial walls. sdLDL levels are an independent risk factor and of more predictive value than total LDL-C for the assessment of coronary artery disease and metabolic syndrome. Functional food ingredients have attracted significant attention for the management of dyslipidemia and subsequently increase cardio-metabolic health. However, to date there is no study that has investigated the effect of these bioactive natural compounds on sdLDL levels. Therefore, the aim of the present review is to summarize the evidence accrued on the effect of special dietary ingredients such as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, nutraceuticals and herbal medicines on the levels of sdLDL, LDL particle number, and LDL particle size. Based on the results of the existing clinical trials this review suggests that natural products such as medicinal plants, nutraceuticals and omega-3 fatty acids can be used as adjunct or complementary therapeutic agents to reduce sdLDL levels, LDL particle numbers or increase LDL particle size and subsequently may prevent and treat CVD, with the advantage that theses natural agents are generally safe, accessible, and inexpensive.
... respectively). In a study by Harper et al., 50 flaxseed oil was used to evaluate the anti-inflammatory profile. No significant effect was found because only the oil of the seeds, which does not contain any dietary insoluble fibers or lignans, was used in the trial. ...
Childhood obesity is a medical condition of major public health concern. Chia seeds are used to treat certain noncommunicable diseases, and they are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which contribute to the absorption of vitamins. A randomized double-blind clinical trial of 30 obese children was performed. The sample was composed of prepubertal 5- to 10-year-old children of both sexes with body mass indexes equal to or above the 95th percentile who were recruited through the Pediatric Department of the Faculdade de Medicina do ABC. Blood samples were drawn, the children were weighed and measured, and a 24-h dietary recall was obtained before and after the treatment. Not only were significant differences observed for fibrinogen (P = .011) but a correlation between the changes in markers and the presence of fibers was also observed for two inflammatory parameters: tumor necrosis factor-α (P = .027) and nuclear factor-κβ (P = .059). These results indicate that chia seeds may have anti-inflammatory effects related to their fiber content in the context of childhood obesity.
