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The objective of this research is to evaluate the performance of cryogenically treated cemented carbide milling inserts with 11% cobalt content in face milling of EN19 steel. Two different deep cryogenic treatments at temperature of around − 193 °C were performed on the inserts, namely cryogenic treatment and cryogenic treatment and tempering. Unco...
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... and treated inserts are uniform, as even a minor change in the edge condition would have a higher impact on the wear rate. The edge hone of all the three inserts was measured using a contour tracer, and the inserts with similar hone values were only used for the testing. The face milling cutter and the insert used for the study are shown in Fig. ...
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We report the observation of inhomogeneous superconductivity (ISC) in the recently discovered high-density nonmagnetic (NM) phase of Co in thin films below an onset temperature ( ) of 5.4 K in the absence of external magnetic field, via four-probe measurements of resistivity. Further, the point-contact spectroscopy studies also confirm superconduct...
Citations
... Cryogenic treatment, as an extension of traditional heat treatment technology, is a treatment method to strengthen the mechanical and physical properties of the part by placing it in a low-temperature environment and holding it for a certain time period [182][183][184]. Cryogenic treatment has the advantages of low treatment cost, environmental protection, non-toxicity, no explosion and other dangerous situations. ...
... The key takeaway and future direction of the research area are summarized in Sect. 6, and the article concludes with Sect. 7. ...
... Flank wear is the commonly seen wear in metal cutting. The uniform scar-like pattern that is formed on the flank of the tool below the main cutting edge is the flank wear, while the wear pattern on the flank seen below the corner radius (or nose) is the nose wear [6]. Friction and abrasive action between the tool and workpiece cause flank and nose wear. ...
The high demand for machining process automation has placed real-time tool condition monitoring as one of the top priorities of academic and industrial scholars in the past decade. But the presence of numerous known and unknown machining variables and challenging operating conditions such as high temperature and pressure makes it a daunting task. However, recent advancements in sensor and digital technologies have enabled in-process condition monitoring and real-time process optimization a highly accurate, robust, and effective process. Hence, the objective of the article is to provide a summary of the factors influencing the performance of cutting tools, critical machining variables to be monitored, techniques applied to monitor tool conditions, and artificial intelligence algorithms used to predict tool performance by analyzing and reviewing the literature. The future direction of intelligent cutting tools and how they would help in building the foundation for advanced smart factory ecosystems such as digital twins and Industry 4.0 are also discussed.
... The composition of the workpiece material was measured (via positive material identification (PMI) technique) and provided by the supplier (Petromet Flange Inc., Mumbai, India). The Figure 1 is the representation of experimental plan and Fig. 2 Some studies reported a common reduction of 5-6% in the cutting tool flank wear in addition to a considerable improvement in hardness, abrasive wear, nose wear, and pull-out and segregation of carbide grains as a result of cryogenic treatment ( Ref 29,30). Cryogenic treatment of solid carbide (WC) primarily leads to the formation of stabilized and finer g-phase particles. ...
... The possible reason of this T-I T-II T-III Mean T-I T-II T-III Mean T-I T-II T- . Cryotreated end mills must have exhibited improved thermal conductivity because of carbide particles with bigger size and refined grains, which aid in enhanced heat dissipation ( Ref 12,30). The same must be the credible reason of the improvement in surface roughness in the case of wet-milling at a higher spindle speed by cryo-treated end mill compared to the untreated end mill. ...
Magnesium alloys are identified as the new generation degradable biomaterials in the biomedical industry. They can prevent secondary operation for the removal of the inserted implant. Nowadays, sustainable manufacturing is promoting the use of low-temperature machining environments over the traditional means. Surface integrity characteristics of the machined surface and tool wear have always been some of the key interests of the researchers. In this research, aluminum titanium nitride-coated cemented carbide end mills were employed in an untreated and cryo-treated condition to machine the biomedical magnesium alloy AZ31B. The experiments were designed using one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) approach, and milling operations were conducted under three different machining environments, namely wet, cryogenic, and hybrid. Spindle speed, feed rate, and depth of cut were chosen as the input control variables for a comparative study to achieve lowest surface roughness and highest surface microhardness. The results displayed an improvement in the outcome at higher spindle speed (2800 rpm) and lower feed rate (80 mm/rev) and depth of cut (0.5 mm) produced by untreated end mill during cryo-milling. However, the treated end mill performed best with hybrid machining environment (simultaneous application of LN2 and cutting fluid) during milling. Moreover, in this case, the accumulated oxides were found to form the most uniform and thinnest passivation layer over the milled surface. Higher spindle speed in cryo-milling achieved 27.45 and 19.56% better surface finish than wet and hybrid-milling, respectively. Moreover, higher spindle speed in cryo-milling achieved 14.46 and 8.72% higher surface microhardness than wet and hybrid-milling, respectively. Higher spindle speed in hybrid-milling achieved 14.89 and 6.97% better surface finish than wet and cryo-milling, respectively. Furthermore, higher spindle speed in cryo-milling achieved 7.69 and 4.10% higher surface microhardness than wet and cryo-milling, respectively.
... Tungsten carbide is one of the hardest materials known to man that is being used in cutting tool manufacturing, wear applications, mining, construction, and oil & gas exploration industries [24,25]. With a hardness value of 9-9.5, WC lies just below the diamond in the Mohs hardness scale [24,25]. ...
... Tungsten carbide is one of the hardest materials known to man that is being used in cutting tool manufacturing, wear applications, mining, construction, and oil & gas exploration industries [24,25]. With a hardness value of 9-9.5, WC lies just below the diamond in the Mohs hardness scale [24,25]. The WC based materials are manufactured by cementing the hard tungsten carbide (WC) particles in a tough cobalt (Co) matrix (hence it is commonly referred to as "cemented carbide") which makes it a metal matrix composite [26]. ...
... Based on the amount of carbon deficiency it may either appear as a uniformly distributed fine particles are as clusters [107,108]. The volumetric fraction of η-carbide increased when the scanning speed was increased [25]. The XRD spectrum (Fig. 16(i)) detected around 1.9%, 3.5%, and 6.0% of Ni 2 W 4 C in the parts made at scanning speeds of 0.8 m/s, 1.0 m/s and 1.2 m/s, respectively [32]. ...
Additive manufacturing is a process of transforming 3D CAD models into a finished part by adding layers of material. The technology is being used for more than three decades to make prototypes using polymer powders. Over the years, the technique has evolved, which currently allows the industries to manufacture functional parts out of different metals that have high complexity and limited lot size. Tungsten carbide (WC-Co) is a refractory metal with a very high melting point of around 2900 °C and is difficult to manufacture by conventional methods. Hence, tungsten carbide hardmetal parts are made by powder metallurgy technique, wherein tungsten carbide and binder metal powders (cobalt, nickel, iron or alloys of these metals) are pressed into the desired shape and sintered. However, due to the recent advancements, researchers have proven that complex tungsten carbide parts can be made by additive techniques. Hence, the article aims to summarize the three major techniques, Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and Binder Jet 3D printing (BJ3DP) used in the manufacturing of tungsten carbide hardmetal parts. The process variables, metallurgical and mechanical characteristics, and challenges in manufacturing are presented which would serve as a knowledge pool for prospective researchers.
Tungsten is an important material for high‐temperature applications due to its high chemical and thermal stability. Its carbide, that is, tungsten carbide, is used in tool manufacturing because of its outstanding hardness and as a catalyst scaffold due to its morphology and large surface area. However, microstructuring, especially high‐resolution 3D microstructuring of both materials, is a complex and challenging process which suffers from slow speeds and requires expensive specialized equipment. Traditional subtractive machining methods, for example, milling, are often not feasible because of the hardness and brittleness of the materials. Commonly, tungsten and tungsten carbide are manufactured by powder metallurgy. However, these methods are very limited in the complexity and resolution of the produced components. Herein, tungsten ion‐containing organic–inorganic photoresins, which are patterned by two‐photon lithography (TPL) at micrometer resolution, are introduced. The printed structures are converted to tungsten or tungsten carbide by thermal debinding and reduction of the precursor or carbothermal reduction reaction, respectively. Using TPL, complex 3D tungsten and tungsten carbide structures are prepared with a resolution down to 2 and 7 μm, respectively. This new pathway of structuring tungsten and its carbide facilitates a broad range of applications from micromachining to metamaterials and catalysis.
In addition to its usage in the defence industry, 6061 aluminium is prevalent in heavy industries like the aviation, shipbuilding and space industries. In this study, cryogenic processing was applied on the 6061-T651 aluminium alloy and the cutting inserts used, face milling procedures were carried out, and the effects of cutting parameters were examined. For the face milling procedure, cutting inserts with three different coatings (coated with TiN-TiCN-Al2O3 by CVD technique, coated with TiAlN-Nano by PVD technique, and coated with AlTiN by PVD technique), three different cutting speeds (250, 350 and 450 m/min) and three different feed rates (0.15, 0.30 and 0.45 mm/tooth) were used. The Taguchi method was used for experimental design and optimisation, and by selecting the Taguchi L9 (33) orthogonal array, nine experiments were carried out. Surface roughness and flank wear were measured after each experiment while cutting zone temperatures were measured during the experiments. The values obtained from the experiments were optimised and assessed with analysis of variance (ANOVA), three-dimensional plots, and the regression method. After the experiments, the lowest surface roughness, flank wear, and cutting temperatures were successfully optimised with the Taguchi method. The R2 values of the mathematical models for these three parameters were obtained as 100%.
The objective of this review paper is to introduce Cryogenic temperature effect on different properties of materials. Results showed that cryogenic operation improves properties like hardness, fatigue strength, tensile strength, toughness and resistance to wear in comparison to conventional operations. The improvement is a result of microstructural changes at cryogenic temperature which helps in conversion of austenite to martensite and carbide nucleation. The results also showed that doing tempering before or after cryogenic operation has significant influence on material properties which helps to achieve better carbide distribution. Different heat treatment sequences which involve tempering before or after Deep Cryogenic Treatment (DCT), provides varied results. Soaking time at cryogenic temperature also has an important role in refinement of microstructure and affect material properties.
This study aims to clarify the effects of deep cryogenic treatment of WC–Fe cemented carbide. WC–10 wt% Fe cemented carbide is fabricated using spark plasma sintering method and is cryogenically exposed to liquid nitrogen (−196 °C) at a 1, 6, 12, 24, and 48 h sequence. Depending on the deep cryogenic treatment duration, the phase constituent is related to martensitic transformation (γ-fcc to α-bcc), causing a carbide–binder alloy phase (Fe3W3C or Fe6W6C; η-phase) between the deformation of the lattice structure and segregation from the WC/Fe interface. The mechanical properties of WC–Fe subjected to deep cryogenic treatment show that the hardness strengthens until 6 h (21.33 GPa) and then weakens after continued deep cryogenic treatment from 12 h (18.28 GPa). However, subsequent deep cryogenic treatment for more than 24 h recovers their mechanical properties to those observed initially. The variation in properties indicates a relationship between the grain growth behavior of cemented carbide and the formation of secondary phases induced by dislocation motion for martensitic transformation.
The substance properties were enhanced gradually through cryogenic treatment. The current experimen-tal investigation has reported the enhanced substance properties of Haynes alloy. The substance proper-ties of Haynes 214 alloy has not been increased by conventional technique. It has better properties and itconsists of nickel, chromium, aluminium and iron based alloy. In this process, the alloys were treated to�190°C. The cryogenic treatments were performed with the help of cryo processor. The alloy propertiesof hardness and wear rate were estimated with respect to the different control factors. Taguchi approachwas utilized to determine the desired response factors. The effect of factors and its involvement havebeen investigational through variance test.
Cryogenic treatment is a thermal treatment process in which the parts are usually cooled to temperatures below −70 C (< 203 K) to induce metallurgical changes in materials. The treatment has shown a significant performance improvement in most of the ferrous materials and it’s alloy, by transforming retained austenite to martensite and precipitating secondary carbides. However, the effect of such low-temperature treatment on highly stable super hard material like tungsten carbide (commonly referred to as “cemented carbide”) is uncertain. But researchers have reported precipitation of eta-phase carbides, densification of cobalt binder, refinement of tungsten carbide grains, phase transformation of cobalt, and changes in residual stress in cryogenically treated tungsten carbide (WC-Co) material which resulted in increased hardness and wear resistance. Hence, this paper focuses on summarizing the cryogenic treatment parameters used in different studies, the rate of performance improvement in different applications, and reported mechanical and metallurgical changes, which would serve as a pool of knowledge for future researchers.
