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Fabrication of 2D microfluidic fabric-based analytical devices by wax printing. Wax was printed on a piece of fabric that was directly fed into the printer with the aid of a paper. The device was then placed into a hot oven to melt the printed wax and complete the procedure (a). Images of the test design printed on cotton (b), polyester (c), and silk (d). The scale bar is 1 cm
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Fabric has emerged as an alternative to paper for the fabrication of microfluidic devices. Fabric could be easily manufactured using various natural and synthetic materials that contain a wide variety of functional groups, which can participate in binding to different types of molecules without further functionalization. To allow a rapid fabricatio...
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Citations
... Guan et al. in 2015 fabricated µCADs using wax screen printing method instead of wax-patterning technique and was much faster and required lower processing temperature [20]. In 2019, A Nilghaz et al. reported the use of wax printers (Xerox ColorQube 8570 printer) to print micro uidic patterns over fabric [21]. The fabric was attached to papers using the tapes and then it was inserted into the printer. ...
... Microscopic investigations also revealed proper channel walls with complete beeswax penetration into the fabric and no signi cant channel irregularities as shown in Fig. 1(e). This, to the best of the authors knowledge is the minimum achievable resolution over fabric so far and is comparable to that achieved using printing technique over fabrics as well [21]. ...
Microfluidic channels fabricated over fabrics or papers have the potential to find substantial application in the next generation of wearable healthcare monitoring systems. The present work focuses on the fabrication procedures that can be used to obtain practically realizable fabric-based microfluidic channels (µFADs) utilizing patterning mask and wax, unlike conventional printing technique. In this study, comparative analysis was used to differentiate channels obtained using different masking tools for channel patterning as well as different wax materials as the hydrophobic barriers. Drawbacks of the conventional tape and candle wax technique was noted and a novel approach was used to create microfluidic channels through facile and simple masking technique using PVC clear sheets as channel stencils and beeswax as channel barriers. The resulting fabric based microfluidic channels with varying widths as well as complex microchannel, microwell, and micromixer designs were investigated and a minimum channel width resolution of 500 µm was successfully obtained over cotton based fabrics. Thereafter, the PVC clear sheet-beeswax based microwells were successfully tested to confine various organic and inorganic samples indicating vivid applicability of the technique. Finally, the microwells were used to make simple and facile colorimetric assay for glucose detection and demonstrated effective detection of glucose levels from 10 mM to 50 mM with significant color variation using potassium iodide as the coloring agent. The above findings clearly suggests the potential of this alternative technique in making low-cost and practically realizable fabric based diagnostic device (µFADs) in contrast to the other approaches that are currently in use.
... Moreover, by adjusting the temperature and processing time, wax printers can manufacture both 2D and 3D hydrophobic microstructures on various fabrics made of cotton, silk and polyester. 71 Interestingly, He et al. coated the cotton fabric with a temperature-responsive polymer (polyurethane) to develop a stimuli-responsive textile-based microfluidic device. 72 The device was further combined with a paper-based device for the colorimetric detection of glucose in human sweat. ...
On-skin wearable systems for biofluid sampling and biomarker sensing can revolutionize the current practices in healthcare monitoring and personalized medicine. However, there is still a long path toward complete market adoption and acceptance of this fascinating technology. Accordingly, microfluidic science and technology can provide excellent solutions for bridging the gap between basic research and clinical research. The research gap has led to the emerging field of epidermal microfluidics. Moreover, recent advances in the fabrication of highly flexible and stretchable microfluidic systems have revived the concept of micro elastofluidics, which can provide viable solutions for on-skin wearable biofluid handling. In this context, this review highlights the current state-of-the-art platforms in this field and discusses the potential technologies that can be used for on-skin wearable devices. Toward this aim, we first compare various microfluidic platforms that could be used for on-skin wearable devices. These platforms include semiconductor-based, polymer-based, liquid metal-based, paper-based, and textile-based microfluidics. Next, we discuss how these platforms can enhance the stretchability of on-skin wearable biosensors at the device level. Next, potential microfluidic solutions for collecting, transporting, and controlling the biofluids are discussed. The application of finger-powered micropumps as a viable solution for precise and on-demand biofluid pumping is highlighted. Finally, we present the future directions of this field by emphasizing the applications of droplet-based microfluidics, stretchable continuous-flow micro elastofluidics, stretchable superhydrophobic surfaces, liquid beads as a form of digital micro elastofluidics, and topological liquid diodes that received less attention but have enormous potential to be integrated into on-skin wearable devices.
... To date, only a few papers have reported the development of e-PADs for veterinary drug determination, all of which target antibiotic detection in milk samples [83,103]. Majority of reported e-PADs deployed optical detection methods such as colorimetry [104][105][106][107] and fluorescence [108][109][110][111]. ...
Nowadays, foodborne pathogens and other food contaminants are among the major contributors to human illnesses and even deaths worldwide. There is a growing need for improvements in food safety globally. However, it is a challenge to detect and identify these harmful analytes in a rapid, sensitive, portable, and user-friendly manner. Recently, researchers have paid attention to the development of paper-based electrochemical biosensors due to their features and promising potential for food safety analysis. The use of paper in electrochemical biosensors offers several advantages such as device miniaturization, low sample consumption, inexpensive mass production, capillary force-driven fluid flow, and capability to store reagents within the pores of the paper substrate. Various paper-based electrochemical biosensors have been developed to enable the detection of foodborne pathogens and other contaminants that pose health hazards to humans. In this review, we discussed several aspects of the biosensors including different device designs (e.g., 2D and 3D devices), fabrication techniques, and electrode modification approaches that are often optimized to generate measurable signals for sensitive detection of analytes. The utilization of different nanomaterials for the modification of electrode surface to improve the detection of analytes via enzyme-, antigen/antibody-, DNA-, aptamer-, and cell-based bioassays is also described. Next, we discussed the current applications of the sensors to detect food contaminants such as foodborne pathogens, pesticides, veterinary drug residues, allergens, and heavy metals. Most of the electrochemical paper analytical devices (e-PADs) reviewed are small and portable, and therefore are suitable for field applications. Lastly, e-PADs are an excellent platform for food safety analysis owing to their user-friendliness, low cost, sensitivity, and a high potential for customization to meet certain analytical needs
... Chemical patterning of paper-based sensors has been fabricated by many approaches, e.g., wax, inkjet, flexographic, screen and laser printing, photolithography, plasma treatment, chemical vapor deposition, and ink stamping, as presented in Fig. 3. Due to wax being non-toxic and low-cost, wax printing is more commonly employed to construct paper-based sensors compared to other techniques, because of its simplicity, rapidity, and compatibility. it is based on solid ink printers, where molten wax is printed on the paper surface as an alternative to toner J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f or ink. Then afterward, a wax pattern on one side of a paper surface, then it is heated to allow the wax to penetrate via the paper thickness (Altundemir et al., 2017) (Nilghaz et al., 2019). In the heating process, the wax spreads in two directions, i.e., laterally and vertically. ...
Paper-based sensors have received increasing attention in the last decade, their use has spread to various application fields, such as clinical diagnostic, food safety, environmental monitoring, etc. Feature inherent to on-side detection is suitable to be used as point-of-care (POC) testing, including avoided sampling, sample preparation, and laborious procedure in the classical clinical lab, which is undoubtedly driving many developments of this lab-on-paper technology. The detection of biomarkers that are related to human health conditions has to play important role in the indication of the risk of diseases. In this review, the development of paper-based sensors for the detection of important biomarkers is presented. The also emphasis on recognition elements, such as chromophores/fluorophores, plasmonic nanoparticles, metal nanoclusters, etc., used to serve suitable selectivity and sensitivity. The performance of paper-based sensors using various techniques, including optical and electrochemical and other detection techniques are addressed. Furthermore, their limitations and prospects are discussed. The review also highlights cutting-edge technologies for further enhancement in the sensor performances for biomarkers detection.
... This group manufactured μPAD on Grade 1 filter paper using a Xerox ColorQube 8580 Printer. Nilghaz et al. [14] developed a fabric-based microfluidic device by wax printing. This group used a Xerox ColorQube 8570 wax printer to print solid wax on cotton, silk, and polyester fabrics. ...
In this work, we developed an alternative manufacturing paper-based microfluidics method through 3D printing and wax filament. Microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (µPADs) are low-cost and easy-to-manufacture tools used for various chemical and biological analyses and studies. Paper-based microfluidics with wax has been limited as the manufacturers have discontinued most wax printing equipment. We aim to develop a low-cost and accessible manufacturing method that can replace conventional wax-on paper-based microfluidic manufacturing methods. Using highly available commercial 3D printing technology and wax filament, we could create hydrophobic wax barriers on the surface of different paper types. The properties and limits of this manufacturing method were characterized. Moreover, using this paper-based microfluidic manufacturing method, we were able to measure dopamine electrochemically using µPAD as a passive flow-based method in concentrations as low as 1 nM using injections as small as 15 µL.
... All such materials can create extrinsically soft robots, depending on the particular design. Textile materials have reasonable strength, elongation, flexibility, and durability (Nilghaz et al. , 2013(Nilghaz et al. , 2019Sánchez-Ferrer et al., 2009), thus robots composed of such textile materials are intrinsically soft and they can form in various shapes. Using these advantages, roboticists have begun to use textiles, not simply as substrates, but as functional components such as actuators and sensors. ...
Soft robotics have substantial benefits of safety, adaptability, and cost efficiency compared to conventional rigid robotics. Textiles have applications in soft robotics either as an auxiliary material to reinforce the conventional soft material or as an active soft material. Textiles of various types and configurations have been fabricated into key components of soft robotics in adaptable formats. Despite significant advancements, the efficiency and characteristics of textile actuators in practical applications remain unsatisfactory. To address these issues, novel structural and material designs as well as new textile technologies have been introduced. Herein, we aim at giving an insight into the current state of the art in textile technology for soft robotic manufacturing. We firstly discuss the fundamental actuation mechanisms for soft robotics. We then provide a critical review on the recently developed functional textiles as reinforcements, sensors, and actuators in soft robotics. Finally, the future trends and current strategies that can be employed in textile-based actuator manufacturing process have been explored to address the critical challenges in soft robotics.
... The wax patterning method used for these textile-based devices successfully formed hydrophobic barriers, as previously shown for paper-based devices using wax markers and inkjet printing. [43,44] However, SEM images of the wax-coated fabric in Figure 2b reveal that the wax layer does not fully cover interfiber or interyarn gaps, a finding that is consistent with images of wax-coated polyester fabrics by Nilghaz et al. [45] In previous work, SEM images taken of wax-coated polyester fibers revealed interyarn gaps that were not filled with wax, but no attempt was made to assess and rationalize the consequences of this finding, as discussed in the present paper. Using SEM and calculations of pore volume fractions, Rajendra et al. and Wang et al. also found that in wax-patterned paper substrates wax coats the cellulose fibers but does not completely block pores. ...
Responding to current limitations in paper‐based sensors and the increased interest in wearable sensors, we introduce here potentiometric sensors fully integrated into a knitted polyester fabric and their application in aqueous and biological samples. Single layer ion‐sensing devices requiring only 30 μL of sample were fabricated using wax patterning and Ag/AgCl paint. These devices give a Nernstian response to chloride over 4 orders of magnitude – an order of magnitude improvement from analogous paper‐based devices. We also report the penetration of polyester yarns with polymeric hydrophobic and hydrophilic ion‐sensing and reference membranes, all fully embedded within the fabric. These results demonstrate the promise of knitted fabrics as substrates for fully‐integrated potentiometric sensors with improved detection limits. They also elucidate the effect of pore structure on sensor fabrication and performance, thereby affecting how we understand both fabric‐ and paper‐based devices.
... A microfluidic (MF) platform is usually developed by using materials that are lightweight, inexpensive, portable, and disposable, such as polymers, glass, paper, and textiles, among others. Each of the materials has its own unique advantages [39][40][41][42]. For example, paper microfluidics is one of the most extensively used platforms that has been used for a variety of bio-analyte detection, due to its easy availability, low cost, biodegradability, portability, lightweight nature, and self-capillary action that eliminates the need for an external pump. ...
Infectious diseases caused by bacteria and viruses are highly contagious and can easily be transmitted via air, water, body fluids, etc. Throughout human civilization, there have been several pandemic outbreaks, such as the Plague, Spanish Flu, Swine-Flu, and, recently, COVID-19, amongst many others. Early diagnosis not only increases the chance of quick recovery but also helps prevent the spread of infections. Conventional diagnostic techniques can provide reliable results but have several drawbacks, including costly devices, lengthy wait time, and requirement of trained professionals to operate the devices, making them inaccessible in low-resource settings. Thus, a significant effort has been directed towards point-of-care (POC) devices that enable rapid diagnosis of bacterial and viral infections. A majority of the POC devices are based on plasmonics and/or microfluidics-based platforms integrated with mobile readers and imaging systems. These techniques have been shown to provide rapid, sensitive detection of pathogens. The advantages of POC devices include low-cost, rapid results, and portability, which enables on-site testing anywhere across the globe. Here we aim to review the recent advances in novel POC technologies in detecting bacteria and viruses that led to a breakthrough in the modern healthcare industry.
... This can be achieved by using conventional and low-throughput techniques like photolithography (OuYang et al. 2014;He et al. 2013), vapour phase deposition (Haller et al. 2011;Kwong and Gupta 2012), screen printing Sameenoi et al. 2014), flexography printing (Olkkonen et al. 2010), plasma treatment (Li et al. 2008), wax dipping (Songjaroen et al. 2011) and correction pens (Mani et al. 2019). Alternatively, highthroughput wax printing (Lu et al. 2009;Carrilho et al. 2009;Nilghaz et al. 2019) and inkjet printing (Abe et al. 2008;Li et al. 2010;Elsharkawy et al. 2014;Yamada et al. 2015;Su et al. 2016;Matsuda et al. 2017;Punpattanakul et al. 2018) are also used to make paper-based microfluidic devices for chemical sensing and diagnostic purposes (Li et al. 2012;Yang et al. 2017). ...
We present a high resolution, ultra-frugal printing of paper microfluidic devices using in-house paraffin formulation on a simple filter paper. The patterns printed using an office inkjet printer formed a selective hydrophobic barrier of 4 ± 1 µm thickness with a hydrophilic channel width of 275 µm. These printed patterns effectively confine common aqueous solutions and solvents, which was verified by solvent compatibility studies. SEM analysis reveals that the solvent confinement is due to pore blockage in the filter paper. The fabricated paper-based device was validated for qualitative assessment of Candida albicans (pathogenic fungi) by using a combination of L-proline β-naphthylamide as the substrate and cinnamaldehyde as an indicator. Our studies reveal that the pathogenic fungi can be detected within 10 min with the limit of detection (LOD) of 0.86 × 10⁶ cfu/mL. Owing to its simplicity, this facile method shows high potential and can be scaled up for developing robust paper-based devices for biomarker detection in resource-limited settings.
Graphic abstract
... The wax coating was allowed to solidify at room temperature for 2 min. This melting-solidification procedure formed the defined hydrophobic borders that completely penetrated the thickness of the paper (Ma, Nilghaz, Choi, Liu, & Lu, 2018;Nilghaz, Liu, Ma, Huang, & Lu, 2019). This wax layer also surrounded the evenly spaced, circular, hydrophilic wells where reactions were set to occur. ...
By utilizing the coffee‐ring effect and microfluidic paper‐based analytical devices (µPADs), this study improved the sensitivity of the determination of norfloxacin in four different food matrices. Micro‐PADs in this study were fabricated by designing and embedding wax channels onto cellulose‐based filter paper through printing and subjecting the paper to heat to allow the wax to penetrate the paper. Determination of norfloxacin concentration in food samples was achieved by monitoring the colorimetric reaction that occurred between norfloxacin and the added iron (III) nitrate nonahydrate in 5 mM ammonia in each reaction chamber. A transition metal hydroxide was formed through this reaction that resulted in the formation of a solid precipitate to enable the antibiotic to bind to the iron molecule via coordination chemistry. This metal ion–antibiotic complex generated a visible color change. Following the colorimetric reaction, images were taken and subsequently analyzed via ImageJ to determine the relative pixel intensity that was used to infer norfloxacin concentration. The analytical sensitivity of this device was determined to be as low as 50 ppm when analyzing the inner‐ring reaction, and as low as 5 ppm when analyzing the outer coffee ring thereby allowing for an alternative cheaper, faster, and more user‐friendly method to detect norfloxacin than the conventional methods.
Practical Application
This novel paper‐based microfluidic device can achieve the detection of antibiotic residues in agrifoods in a faster, cheaper, and more user‐friendly manner.
