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Bacterial cellulose is a promising source of biodegradable polymers having high purity. The time required to disperse bacterial cellulose wet membranes was studied, along with evaluation by infrared spectroscopy and thermal analysis of the dispersed bacterial fiber and tests of the physical properties of the sheet. The results showed that bacterial...
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... The tearing resistance of bacterial cellulose derived from oil palm EFB hydrolysate media at varying concentrations of Accellerase®1500 enzyme and different reaction times is presented in Fig. 8. Similar patterns can be observed in the fracture resistance test as in the tensile strength test, wherein sample producing a higher quantity of bacterial cellulose like 13%/41 h exhibits greater fracture resistance of 2.25 mNm2/g tear index [55]. This is further supported by previous study which concluded that the inclusion of bacterial cellulose fibers has led to a substantial enhancement in tensile, tear, and burst indices attributed to strengthened hydrogen bonding between the bacterial cellulose fibers [56]. Additionally, some samples in this set were unable to produce tangible results due to the fragility of their structure, and the obtained nil results were accordingly omitted. ...
Concerns about non-biodegradable plastics have led scientists to investigate alternative packaging materials such as biodegradable polymers like cellulose. Bacterial cellulose is a type of cellulose produced by acetic acid bacteria like Komagataeibacter xylinus, which has similar characteristics to plant-derived cellulose. However, the high cost of fermentation media presents a challenge. To address this issue, researchers explored the use of cheap and readily available fermentation media like oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) with optimized enzymatic hydrolysis conditions to help maximize the production of bacterial cellulose. The study aimed to determine the optimal fermentation conditions (nitrogen sources and pH) for bacterial cellulose production in the model fermentation media, De Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) broth. The obtained parameters were then used to investigate the effect of enzyme concentration (Acellerase® 1500) and fermentation conditions on the production of bacterial cellulose from EFB using response surface methodology (RSM) approaches. Results showed that yeast extract effectively produced bacterial cellulose with the highest wet weight of 260 g/L under controlled pH conditions (pH 6.0 to 6.5) in MRS broth. The addition of yeast extract to EFB hydrolysate at 15% enzyme concentration and 41-h time duration successfully produced bacterial cellulose with the highest wet weight of 106 g/L, pH value reduced by 3.02, reducing sugar and protein concentrations were reduced by 28.77 g/L and 0.61 g/L, from the starting value of 100.72 g/L and 6.18 g/L, respectively. From RSM data, this study concluded that enzymatic hydrolysis at 15% (w/v) Acellerase® 1500 for 36.5 h plays an essential role in producing high-quality bacterial cellulose from EFB. Characterization study shows that bacterial cellulose produced from higher concentrations of Acellerase® 1500 enzyme was able to produce a denser network of microfibrils that possessed greater tensile strength, tearing resistance, and a longer rate of biodegradability. These findings provide insight into the potential use of EFB in producing bacterial cellulose as an eco-friendly alternative to non-biodegradable plastics, using readily available and affordable materials.
... 29 The intensity of the peak between 850-1150 cm -1 signifies that the bacterial cellulose's crystallinity with treatment at 90°C increased its crystalline content in comparison to treatment at 70°C. 1 The FT-IR spectrum of bacterial cellulose samples shows no contradictory results from the reported spectra. 30,1,48,9,49 Cytotoxicity study of cellulose ...
Acetic acid bacteria synthesized microbial cellulose were isolated from various citrus fruits, enabled by increased cellulose production to develop a biodegradable polymer as a food wrapper. The objective of the research cynosures on the isolation, enrichment, identification, and optimization of bacteria that produce cellulose, characterization, and cytotoxic study of the obtained cellulose. Two highly effective cellulose producers, Acetobacter lovaniensis (A1) and Acetobacter fabarum (A2), were isolated based on their morphology, biochemical analysis, and 16s rRNA sequencing. Studies were conducted to optimize pH, temperature, inoculum size, nitrogen, and carbon sources. Strain A1 produced 0.715 g/100 ml, whereas A2 produced 0.856 g/100 ml of cellulose under optimum growth conditions. The characteristics of microbial cellulose were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). A cytotoxicity study for the obtained cellulose has been conducted with mouse embryo fibroblast cells (3T3-L1) and showed 97% viability of cells with the lowest concentration of 12.5 µg/ml. These isolates could be employed in fermentation technology to produce cellulose polymer-based sustainable biodegradable food wrappers.
... This enhanced bonding delays the evaporation of absorbed water molecules, leading to increased water retention capacity. 17,18 The scaffold immersed for more than 15 hours exhibited a higher pore density compared to those immersed for less than 15 hours (►Fig. 4). ...
Objective Bacterial nanocellulose (BN), derived from Acetobacter xylinum ATCC 237672, is a polymer that offers several desirable characteristics for scaffolds applications. To further enhance the characteristic of the BN scaffold, hydroxyapatite (HAp) from Anadara granosa and Achatina fulica can be incorporated. Therefore, the aim of the study was to characterize the physical properties of a three-dimensional (3D) scaffold made of HAp and BN.
Materials and Methods The scaffold was developed using the cellulose immersion technique, where BN was soaked in HAp suspension for different duration (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 hours). The physical properties that were evaluated included porosity, pore density, swelling ratio, and water retention.
Results The HAp/BN 3D scaffold, which is considered a hydrogel material, exhibited favorable physical properties that can support cell survival. The total porosity of the scaffolds was 100%. There was no significant difference porosity among the groups (p > 0.05). The swelling ratio increased on day 1 and then sharply decreased on day 2. There was a significant difference between the groups on both day 1 and day 2 (p < 0.05). The scaffolds immersed in the HAp for more than 15 hours exhibited higher water retention compared to the other groups, and there was a significant difference between the groups on day 2 and day 4 (p < 0.05). The scaffold immersed for more than 15 hours exhibited a higher pore density compared to those immersed for less than 15 hours, and there was no a significant difference between the groups (p > 0.05).
Conclusion Our findings suggest that the HAp/BN 3D scaffold, especially when immersed in HAp for 15 hours, possesses promising physical properties that make it suitable for various applications in dental tissue engineering.
... This also implied that amorphous parts absorbed the water, whereas the crystalline part did not absorb water. Subsequently, at this temperature, internal structure of BC appeared to be denser due to the loss of water content (Gao et al., 2011). The second step of mass reduction occurred in the interval of 210-330 • C (Fig. 7b). ...
... The second step of mass reduction occurred in the interval of 210-330 • C (Fig. 7b). At this temperature, the glycosidic bonds in the fibers cleavage, particularly C -O and C -C bonds (Gao et al., 2011). The final mass reduction occurs at 600 • C, where there is constant mass loss of the samples. ...
... The final mass reduction occurs at 600 • C, where there is constant mass loss of the samples. This result conform with previous study that thermal degradation at higher than 400 • C allowed the fibers structure to be reformed into graphitic structure which tend to be more subtle (Gao et al., 2011). From graphich, it reveals that the coated BC-based papers possess higher termal stability compare to base BC-based papers. ...
... It has moderate crystallinity (40-60%) [48], withstands thermal stress up to 345 • C [49], and presents a pore size of 1-100 nm [50]. In contrast, bacterial cellulose offers malleability for shaping [51,52], with lower tensile strength [53] and higher modulus of elasticity (60-115 GPa) [54]. It boasts high crystallinity (84-89%) [49,59,60,63], tolerates temperatures up to 250 • C [49,[59][60][61], and features larger pores (10-300 nm) [52]. ...
... In contrast, bacterial cellulose offers malleability for shaping [51,52], with lower tensile strength [53] and higher modulus of elasticity (60-115 GPa) [54]. It boasts high crystallinity (84-89%) [49,59,60,63], tolerates temperatures up to 250 • C [49,[59][60][61], and features larger pores (10-300 nm) [52]. In summary, plant cellulose and bacterial cellulose exhibit distinct mechanical, thermal, and structural properties. ...
... Microfibrils arranged in crisscross meshes give lignocellulose its shape in the initial stage [47] High. Because of its high modulus of elasticity [51,52], it can be virtually molded into any desired shape [62] ...
In pharmaceutical technology, maintaining and controlling the rate of drug release is essential to ensure optimal therapeutic effects, consistent dosage, sustained release, and compliance with treatment by the patient. Cellulose-based beads have distinctive features that include biodegradability, biocompatibility, safety, cost performance, and stability under varying conditions, particularly humidity, pH, and temperature changes. Additionally, due to their versatility, they can be easily functionalized using a range of chemical groups to control the release of drugs and better target particular tissues. Moreover, the porous structure of cellulose-based beads ensures sustained drug release for an extended period. This review deals with producing functional beads from cellulose and its derivatives, which offer the potential to be used as a drug delivery system. In the first part of the review, we present the present knowledge on the extraction methods and properties of cellulose, its different morphological forms, and its applications in drug delivery. In the second part, we discuss the methods of production of cellulose beads, including dissolution/regeneration and simple mechanical process along with their functionalization routes. The last part of the paper focuses on the use of cellulose-based beads as carriers for drug delivery applications, with a focus on the approaches used to load the beads with drugs, and the mechanism of drug release as well as the controlled release.
... Multiple industries are predicted to account for the majority of cellulose consumption in the current period. With a tensile strength of 16.9 MPa and a cellulose modulus of 2 GPa (Gallegos et al. 2016), cellulose is extensively utilized as a material for rayon fiberboard paper in the manufacturing business. Plant cellulose is a combination of carbohydrates, including hemicellulose and lignin, which weaken the cellulose fibers. ...
... The addition of montmorillonite to the cellulose-based composite decreased its tensile strength while increasing the polymer's permeability. The addition of BC to paper pulp increased the paper's tensile strength and affected its stiffness (Gao et al. 2011). ...
... Expected that bacterial cellulose may partly replace plant fiber in the pulp and paper industry, as a green energy-saving material. [40] ...
... With the increasing of bacterial fibers, the tensile index, tear index, burst index, and stiffness improve, while the porosity and the water absorption decreased. [40] origin of the fiber or paper would be a strong point to support or exclude forgery. Related studies were summarized in Table 4. 19 similar types of office paper were characterized by FT-IR to individuate the most discriminating features that could be measured by these techniques, all the samples [41] Paper relic FTIR Discriminate the paper relics PLS-LDA and LS-SVM were effective techniques with 100% classification accuracy. ...
For many centuries, paper is the main material for recording cultural achievements all over the world. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is an essential analytical tool for the structural analysis of paper and pulp chemistry. This review article introduced recent technical and scientific reports in terms of IR spectroscopy in the paper science and application, where interest had increased during the last couple decades (2000–2022). Five parts were described according to the application of IR spectroscopy: the analysis of cellulose and its derivatives, estimation the date of documents, identification the origins of fiber or paper, specification the chemical and physical properties of paper, and characterization the new materials of paper.
... Under elevated temperatures, the neat BC showed two decomposition steps: the first rapid decomposition step, which occurred at 280-365 °C, was attributed to the degradation of cellulose; when the temperature went beyond 400 °C, the full decomposition of BC was achieved and formed various pyrolysis products (W.-H. Gao, Chen, Yang, Yang, & Han, 2010). The BCNs-ZNPs nanocomposites showed a similar thermal decomposition. ...
Biopolymers are important due to their exceptional functional and barrier properties and also their non-toxicity and eco-friendly nature for various food, biomedical, and pharmaceutical applications. However, biopolymers usually need reinforcement strategies to address their poor mechanical, thermal, and physical properties as well as processability aspects. Several natural nanoparticles have been proposed as reinforcing agents for biopolymeric food packaging materials. Among them, zein nanoparticles (ZNPs) have attracted a lot of interest, being an environmentally friendly material. The purpose of the present review paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of the ZNPs-loaded nanocomposites for food packaging applications, starting from the synthesis, characteristics and properties of ZNPs, to the physicochemical properties of the ZNPs-loaded nanocomposites, in terms of morphology, permeability, solubility, optical features, hydrophobic/hydrophilic behavior, structural characteristics, thermal features, and mechanical attributes. Finally, at the end of this review, some considerations about the safety issues and gastrointestinal fate of ZNPs, as well as the use of ZNPs-based nanocomposites as food packaging, are reported, taking into account that, despite the enormous benefits, nanotechnology also presents some risks associated to the use of nanometric materials.
... The peaks at 2852 and 2921 cm -1 are also associated with hydroxyl groups and are found in the spectra corresponding to both standard HS and liquor containing media. 10,[33][34][35]25,36 ...
Bacterial cellulose is identical in chemical composition to cellulose extracted from lignocellulosic biomass, but with partial difference in structural characteristics. These differences, specifically its purity, make it valuable, but its production processes are quite expensive. In the present work, spent black liquor resulting from cotton pulping, as a major industrial waste stream, was investigated as an alternative carbon source in the production of bacterial cellulose (BC) using Acetobacter xylinum. XRD results of the produced cellulose showed that the crystallinity of the BC was lower than that of cotton pulp alpha-cellulose. SEM evaluation confirmed the nano-size of the produced cellulose, while its structure was evidenced by FT-IR analysis. The effect of altering the culture media on some structural features of the produced BC was thoroughly discussed and it was suggested that the spent liquor could be added in amounts of up to 25% for BC production in standard cultures (HS).
... Xiang et al. [167] and Yuan et al. [171] also announced that a homogeneous dispersion of BC within the paper matrix is an important factor to manufacture successfully reinforcing paper. To succeed in this process, intense stirring [172,173] or acid hydrolysis [34] was tried, but the homogeneous dispersal was difficult due to the high entanglement of the nanofibers reached during culture [172]. However, Gao et al. proposed other ways to disperse BC in water before adding it to the pulp. ...
... Xiang et al. [167] and Yuan et al. [171] also announced that a homogeneous dispersion of BC within the paper matrix is an important factor to manufacture successfully reinforcing paper. To succeed in this process, intense stirring [172,173] or acid hydrolysis [34] was tried, but the homogeneous dispersal was difficult due to the high entanglement of the nanofibers reached during culture [172]. However, Gao et al. proposed other ways to disperse BC in water before adding it to the pulp. ...
The sharp increase in the use of cellulose seems to be in increasing demand in wood; much more research related to sustainable or alternative materials is necessary as a lot of the arable land and natural resources use is unsustainable. In accordance, attention has focused on bacterial cellulose as a new functional material. It possesses a three-dimensional, gelatinous structure consisting of cellulose with mechanical and thermal properties. Moreover, while a plant-originated cellulose is composed of cellulose, hemi-cellulose, and lignin, bacterial cellulose attributable to the composition of a pure cellulose nanofiber mesh spun is not necessary in the elimination of other components. Moreover, due to its hydrophilic nature caused by binding water, consequently being a hydrogel as well as biocompatibility, it has only not only used in medical fields including artificial skin, cartilage, vessel, and wound dressing, but also in delivery; some products have even been commercialized. In addition, it is widely used in various technologies including food, paper, textile, electronic and electrical applications, and is being considered as a highly versatile green material with tremendous potential. However, many efforts have been conducted for the evolution of novel and sophisticated materials with environmental affinity, which accompany the empowerment and enhancement of specific properties. In this review article, we summarized only industry and research status regarding BC and contemplated its potential in the use of BC.
