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In this review, strategies for improving the antimicrobial properties of stainless steel (SS) are presented. The main focus given is to present current strategies for surface modification of SS, which alter surface characteristics in terms of surface chemistry, topography and wettability/surface charge, without influencing the bulk attributes of th...
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... most common metallic biomaterials used in the implantable biomedical field are stainless steel, titanium and its alloys, cobalt-chromium, tantalum, silver and zirconia. In Figure 1, examples of metallic implants used in the human body are presented. Depending on the application, different types of materials are employed. ...
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... biomedical engineering, SS is mostly used as implant material due to its biocompatibility, good mechanical properties, chemical stability, non toxicity and accessibility [5]. Thus SS is one of the common, widely used materials for various demanding applications such as bone implants, oral implants, cardiovascular implants and stents, for lumbar disc replacement, bone plates and screws (as seen on Figure 1), hospital furniture, surgical equipment and devices, intramedullary nails and external fixation devices [17,18]. Favorable abilities of SS are resistance to corrosion and high temperatures-meaning SS can be sterilized by thermal processes without corroding or losing mechanical and physical properties. ...
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... effects vary greatly between different materials and are also strongly dependent on plasma parameters. In case of SS, we found that ageing starts immediately after plasma treatment and reaches final value of WCA, which is lower than untreated sample, one day after plasma treatment ( Figure 10). This suggests that ageing of plasma treated surfaces should be considered and if improved wettability is desired for specific biological response (osteoblast adhesion, antibacterial effects), plasma treatment should be conducted on sight before use of SS material for specific application. ...
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The topography of implant surfaces influences the interaction relationship between material and bacteria. The aim of this work was to characterize a novel 3D titanium surface, produced using Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), and to compare the bacterial interaction with machined and double acid etching (DAE) discs. The surface was characterized by a...
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... Metallic biomaterials currently dominate the implant market, constituting 70-80% due to their exceptional biological and mechanical properties. Among these, AISI 316L stainless steel (SS 316L) alloy is a common choice for biomedical applications, recognized for its corrosion resistance, formability, biocompatibility, and mechanical strength [4][5][6][7]. In addition to its exceptional properties, the cost factor stands out as one of the primary competitive advantages of SS 316L over its main rivals, including titanium-based materials and Co-Cr alloys [8]. ...
... The susceptibility to stretching-induced membrane rupture will depend on the relationship between the membrane's attraction to the nanopillar surface and its stiffness. 85,86 A characteristic interspacing of less than 300 nm is prevalent in most mechanobactericidal nanopatterns reported in the literature. However, if the inflexible pillars are arranged too closely together, there won't be sufficient space for the cell membrane to transit between them, which would culminate in the "bed of nails" effect. ...
... Nanostructures with a wide diameter and tight packing can be bacterial growing sites. 86 Furthermore, a greater aspect ratio (the ratio of feature width to feature height) of the nanofeatures can increase pillar flexibility, which has been demonstrated to correspond to greater cell membrane stretching owing to the pillar's deflection during bacterium adsorption. This flexibility might be crucial for particular applications or interactions, possibly in the context of biological systems. ...
... The increased aspect ratio of the surface nanostructures may promote the improved bactericidal activity of pillar arrays toward bacterial cells on their attachment to the surface (Fig. 8). 86 When bacteria adhere to these flexible pillars, the pillars deflect, causing stretching of the cell membrane. The deflection of the pillars during bacterium adsorption seems to be a critical factor in promoting cell membrane stretching. ...
Surfaces act as reservoirs for the proliferation of microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses, that can be transmitted to individuals who come into contact with them. The phenomenon is known as “fomite transmission”, where pathogens can survive on surfaces for varying periods, depending on the material and environmental conditions. Fomite transmission plays a significant role in spreading infectious diseases. This transmission route is particularly relevant in high-traffic environments like healthcare facilities, public transportation, schools, etc. Developing surfaces with bactericidal or antiviral properties and designing spaces to minimize surface contact are strategies to reduce the risk of fomite transmission. This is where the concept of nature-inspired bactericidal surfaces becomes valuable. Nature offers sustainable surface design for preventing bacterial colonization and growth. Crafting nature-inspired bactericidal surfaces can lead to the development of materials that can help prevent the spread of infections, reduce the need for frequent cleaning, and potentially contribute to healthcare and hygiene applications. To minimize human health and environmental issues, instead of using harmful disinfectants regularly in public places, nanoengineered surfaces with antipathogen features could alternatively halt microbial growth to prevent the risk of establishing a surface-contamination network. In infectious disease control, this work aims to provide a detailed overview and perspective on the importance of developing nature-inspired bactericidal surfaces to combat surface contamination issues. This approach holds the potential to offer more sustainable and practical solutions compared to traditional methods of using disinfectants and harsh chemicals.
... 316L stainless steel (SS) is a low-carbon austenitic SS. This material possesses excellent corrosion properties and exhibits good chemical and mechanical stability, high mechanical strength, good machinability, and biocompatibility [1,2] . Because of its good properties, steel is widely applied for many industrial applications involving chemicals or food processing [2] . ...
... In medical devices, it is the most widely used among metallic materials [3,4] . Hence, this material is commonly used for medical devices, i.e., cardiovascular stents, orthopedic and dental implants, and a variety of surgical tools such as scalpels and forceps [1,2,[5][6][7][8][9] . ...
... This is an important characteristic of material for food processing [10][11][12] . Surface roughness is also critical for medical device applications [1,5,8] . ...
Electropolishing is an electrochemical surface finishing technique. It is commonly applied to equipment that requires a gleaming finish. This surface property is frequently required in 316L stainless steel (SS) medical implants. Electropolishing removes a thin layer from the metal's surface through electrochemical processes. This results in a very clean, smooth, and bright metal surface. The process parameters, such as electrolyte solution, electrical current, and electropolishing time, influence surface roughness and glossiness. The dissolution of metallic ions during the process may also affect the corrosion resistance of the treated material in addition to producing a shiny surface. This study investigated the surface glossiness, surface roughness, and corrosion of electropolished 316L SS. Electropolishing experiments on 316 SS were carried out using various H3PO4 (50%) and H2SO4 (32%) electrolyte solution compositions. The influences of electrolyte solution composition, electric current, and electropolishing time were studied. The results showed that increasing the H2SO4 content of the mixture and electropolishing the 316L SS for a longer period of time improved the surface roughness and glossiness. Under 10 Amp electric currents, the best surface glossiness was discovered. A corrosion test revealed that the electropolishing produced a Cr and Ni-rich layer that improved the corrosion resistance of the samples.
... Stainless steel is used in industries such as construction [1], medicine [2], energy [3], food [4] and chemical [5,6]. Austenitic stainless steel pipes are used in the nuclear power industry [7][8][9]. ...
The kinetics of austenite grain growth during thermomechanical treatment of AISI 321 steel with a relatively high content of carbon (0.07 wt. %) and titanium (0.50 wt. %) were studied. Hot deformation was carried out by the uniaxial compression of cylindrical specimens on a Gleeble 3800 thermomechanical simulator. A dependence is obtained for calculating the kinetics of austenite grain growth for a temperature range of 1150–1250 °C. The proposed dependence makes it possible to evaluate grain growth under non-isothermal conditions. The verification of the adequacy of the proposed dependence and the method for calculating the grain size at cooling rates 0.2, 1 and 5 °C/s showed its high convergence. The difference between the calculated and experimental grain size did not exceed 8%. The suppression of grain growth is due to the precipitation of titanium carbides and carbonitrides. Using the developed grain growth model, an analysis was made of the reasons for the formation of large grains in the shell after the elongating in the production process.
... Surface treatment technology is a promising method because of its low cost and simple preparation [13][14][15][16]. It has taken a long time to improve medical 316LSS by plasma surface modification to form alloying layer with special structures and properties [17][18][19]. Niobium (Nb) [20], zirconium (Zr) [21], and other elements [22] with excellent biocompatibility and bone tissue inductivity are widely used to improve the surface properties of bioimplant materials. Some scholars have found that increasing the content of Nb in Nb-Zr alloy will improve the initial mechanical properties [23], corrosion resistance [24], and biocompatibility [25] of the samples, which is beneficial for the application in biomedical ...
The aim of this study is to further improve the mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility of the material. We propose a novel method via double-glow plasma alloying–nitriding processing to obtain a Nb–Zr–N alloying layer on medical 316L (316LVM). The surface phase composition and microstructure were observed via X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscope, respectively. The three-dimensional confocal map of the samples was measured via laser profilometer, the static water contact angle was measured via optical contact angle measuring instrument, and the surface reflectivity was measured via spectrophotometer. Results revealed that the obvious Nb2N and Zr3N4 phase and uniform nanoscale cytosolic organization are obtained at the argon–nitrogen ratio of 1:1 and of gradient distribution of nitride composition forms in the alloying layer. The addition of nitrogen element significantly improved the hardness, friction, and wear properties of the samples. The nano-scale structure of Nb–Zr–N layer plays a better protective role for the substrate with high corrosion resistance, and the corrosion resistance rate is approximately one order of magnitude higher than that of the matrix. In addition, the nontoxic Nb–Zr–N alloying layer exhibits excellent biocompatibility for improving the adsorption, proliferation, and differentiation of cells. Therefore, our work provides a feasible method by which to modify the surface of the Nb–Zr alloying layer via ion nitriding and shows the prospect of its application in medical and biological fields.
... Thus, as recently demonstrated in fruitful hospital studies, antimicrobial metallic copper surfaces are anticipated to offer protection against infectious bacteria by lowering surface contamination [27]. Furthermore, different strategies have been adopted to improve the surface characteristics of stainless steel by modifying its surface structure and other surface properties using various technologies [28]. Similarly, like stainless steel, aluminum does not possess any effective antibacterial properties, and bacteria can quickly grow on its surface [29]. ...
... Figure 10 illustrates a side-by-side 3D printed sample of a dual material. Pure stainless steel does not have any remarkable antimicrobial characteristics; however, its properties can be improved by introducing different metal particles into the steel Pure stainless steel does not have any remarkable antimicrobial characteristics; however, its properties can be improved by introducing different metal particles into the steel matrix or altering its surface chemistry through various methods, e.g., electrodeposition, surface coatings, and heating treatments, as described in the previous studies [28,53,54]. ...
Novel strategies and materials have gained the attention of researchers due to the current pandemic, the global market high competition, and the resistance of pathogens against conventional materials. There is a dire need to develop cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and biodegradable materials to fight against bacteria using novel approaches and composites. Fused filament fabrication (FFF), also known as fused deposition modeling (FDM), is the most effective and novel fabrication method to develop these composites due to its various advantages. Compared to metallic particles alone, composites of different metallic particles have shown excellent antimicrobial properties against common Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. This study investigates the antimicrobial properties of two sets of hybrid composite materials, i.e., Cu-PLA-SS and Cu-PLA-Al, are made using copper-enriched polylactide composite, one-time printed side by-side with stainless steel/PLA composite, and second-time with aluminum/PLA composite respectively. These materials have 90 wt.% of copper, 85 wt.% of SS 17-4, 65 wt.% of Al with a density of 4.7 g/cc, 3.0 g/cc, and 1.54 g/cc, respectively, and were fabricated side by side using the fused filament fabrication (FFF) printing technique. The prepared materials were tested against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), Salmonella Poona (S. Poona), and Enterococci during different time intervals (5 min, 10 min, 20 min, 1 h, 8 h, and 24 h). The results revealed that both samples showed excellent antimicrobial efficiency, and 99% reduction was observed after 10 min. Hence, three-dimensional (3D) printed polymeric composites enriched with metallic particles can be utilized for biomedical, food packaging, and tissue engineering applications. These composite materials can also provide sustainable solutions in public places and hospitals where the chances of touching surfaces are higher.
... Stainless steel 316L (316LSS) is one of the most widely used materials in biomedical applications because of its high-strain properties, non-magnetic and low cost [1][2][3]. In the medical field, it is estimated that approximately 60% of surgical implants and about 85% of surgical instruments used in the United States are made of SS [4,5]. However, SS is not inherently antibacterial; the bacteria will attach to the metal surface and proliferate to form ...
Only a few studies have so far focused on the addition of silver to SS316L alloys by conventional sintering methods. Unfortunately, the metallurgical process of silver-containing antimicrobial SS is greatly limited due to the extremely low solubility of silver in iron and its tendency to precipitate at the grain boundaries, resulting in an inhomogeneous distribution of the antimicrobial phase and loss of antimicrobial properties. In this work, we present a novel approach to fabricate antibacterial stainless steel 316L by functional polyethyleneimine-glutaraldehyde copolymer (PEI-co-GA/Ag catalyst) composites. PEI is a highly branched cationic polymer, which makes it exhibit very good adhesion on the surface of the substrate. Unlike the effect of the conventional silver mirror reaction, the introduction of functional polymers can effectively improve the adhesion and distribution of Ag particles on the surface of 316LSS. It can be seen from the SEM images that a large number of silver particles are retained and well dispersed in 316LSS after sintering. PEI-co-GA/Ag 316LSS exhibits excellent antimicrobial properties and does not release free silver ions to affect the surrounding environment. Furthermore, the probable mechanism for the influence of the functional composites on the enhancement of adhesion is also proposed. The formation of a large number of hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces, as well as the negative zeta potential of the 316LSS surface, can effectively enable the formation of a tight attraction between the Cu layer and the surface of 316LSS. These results meet our expectations of designing passive antimicrobial properties on the contact surface of medical devices.
... It is possible that the stainless steel commonly used for surgical instruments, i.e., scalpels, forceps, operating tables, etc., is at risk of an accumulation of harmful bacteria, biofilm formation, and corrosion [29]. The high stability of the selected transition-group elements and their alloys in various environments can be beneficial for using HEA microfibers in saline solution for dentistry and simulated physiological solutions for surgeries and body implantations [30,31]. ...
This study focuses on time-resolved surface modifications of a single-phase Ti25Zr25Nb15V15Ta20 high-entropy alloy (HEA) when immersed in 0.9 wt% NaCl and phosphate-buffer solutions (PBS) at 37 °C. A remarkable transition from high ionic diffusion to electron conduction was observed in PBS, whereas the existing conductivity in NaCl solution was further enhanced after 3 h of exposure. During in-situ testing, NaCl improved passivation conceived by the decrease in passivation-current density and increase in Tafel slope. Heterogeneously dispersed oxide particles with NaCl could have accounted for the moderate increase in conductivity while not affecting the capacitive behavior. The Tafel slope decreased after 2 h of immersion in PBS linked to K+ and P−3 accumulation on the surface. The pronounced change in the post-PBS treated sample was also revealed by a four-fold increase in HEA-electrolyte resistance. A visible decrease in the constant-phase-element parameter of the HEA-electrolyte interface after long-term PBS immersion indicated a rise in electrode conductivity and ionic build-up on the surface. The findings suggest that compared to PBS, the selected HEA has a faster passive-layer formation in NaCl with smaller changes in interface resistivity upon long-term immersion, which is promising for enhanced protein-adsorption rates and loading amount.
... 28 Aside from tissue interactions, various studies identified the nanostructured surface topography to inhibit attachment and growth of bacteria. 29,30 Though the anodization method was not used, nanoscale surface topography on SS was shown to be critical in limiting Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) colony formation. ...
Poor osseointegration and infection are among the major challenges of 316L stainless steel (SS) implants in orthopedic applications. Surface modifications to obtain a nanostructured topography seem to be a promising method to enhance cellular interactions of 316L SS implants. In this study, arrays of nanodimples (NDs) having controlled feature sizes between 25 and 250 nm were obtained on 316L SS surfaces by anodic oxidation (anodization). Results demonstrated that the fabrication of NDs increased the surface area and, at the same time, altered the surface chemistry of 316L SS to provide chromium oxide- and hydroxide-rich surface oxide layers. In vitro experiments showed that ND surfaces promoted up to a 68% higher osteoblast viability on the fifth day of culture. Immunofluorescence images confirmed a well-spread cytoskeleton organization on the ND surfaces. In addition, higher alkaline phosphate activity and calcium mineral synthesis were observed on the ND surfaces compared to non-anodized 316L SS. Furthermore, a 71% reduction in Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and a 58% reduction in Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) colonies were observed on the ND surfaces having a 200 nm feature size compared to non-anodized surfaces at 24 h of culture. Cumulatively, the results showed that a ND surface topography fabricated on 316L SS via anodization upregulated the osteoblast viability and functions while preventing S. aureus and P. aeruginosa biofilm synthesis.
... These results agree with those reported by Sajjad et al. [86]. coccus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria [87]. Goda and colleagues [87] employed N-methylene phosphonic acid chitosan/graphene sheets doped with silver nanoparticles as an antimicrobial agent against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, revealing its excellent performance as an antimicrobial agent against these types of bacteria. ...
... coccus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria [87]. Goda and colleagues [87] employed N-methylene phosphonic acid chitosan/graphene sheets doped with silver nanoparticles as an antimicrobial agent against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, revealing its excellent performance as an antimicrobial agent against these types of bacteria. ...
... Shuai et al. [86] investigated the increase in the antibacterial properties of stainless steel 17-4 using heat treatments. Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of stainless steel can be increased by modifying its surface chemistry and adding metal nanoparticles to its surface [87]. ...
Due to the prevailing existence of the COVID-19 pandemic, novel and practical strategies to combat pathogens are on the rise worldwide. It is estimated that, globally, around 10% of hospital patients will acquire at least one healthcare-associated infection. One of the novel strategies that has been developed is incorporating metallic particles into polymeric materials that neutralize infectious agents. Considering the broad-spectrum antimicrobial potency of some materials, the incorporation of metallic particles into the intended hybrid composite material could inherently add significant value to the final product. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate an antimicrobial polymeric PLA-based composite material enhanced with different microparticles (copper, aluminum, stainless steel, and bronze) for the antimicrobial properties of the hybrid composite. The prepared composite material samples produced with fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing technology were tested for different time intervals to establish their antimicrobial activities. The results presented here depict that the sample prepared with 90% copper and 10% PLA showed the best antibacterial activity (99.5%) after just 20 min against different types of bacteria as compared to the other samples. The metallic-enriched PLA-based antibacterial sheets were remarkably effective against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli; therefore, they can be a good candidate for future biomedical, food packaging, tissue engineering, prosthetic material, textile industry, and other science and technology applications. Thus, antimicrobial sheets made from PLA mixed with metallic particles offer sustainable solutions for a wide range of applications where touching surfaces is a big concern.
