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![Examples of biology laboratories equipped with open technology. The top images show the Mboa Lab in Cameroon (source: openbioeconomy.org) and middle and lower images show the Wenzel Lab in Chile. The following equipment is shown: basic commercial light microscope (a1), open hardware thermocycler (rebuild of OpenPCR) (a2), small commercial DNA analysis equipment (miniPCR, bluegel, vortexter, centrifuge) (a3), repurposed Sous Vide as water bath (a4), repurposed pressure cooker as autoclave (a5), selfdesigned open hardware incubator (a6), self-designed open hardware shaking incubator (a7), commercial open hardware 3D printer (a8), use of reagents and open enzymes (a9). Secondhand commercial laminar flow hood (b1), secondhand commercial microscope with custom enclosure and 3D-printed sample and camera adaptors (b2), open source lasercut fluorescence plate imaging station (rebuilt; [48]) (b3), open laser-cut smartphone microscope (Roachscope from Backyard Brains) (b4), open 3D-printed OpenFlexure microscope in fluorescence configuration (rebuilt and star-LED fitted; [49]) (b5), 3D-printed computational microscope (rebuilt with Unicorn Raspberry Pi hat) (b6), open 3D-printed holographic microscope (UC2 rebuild; [31]) (b7), open time-lapse multiple Petri plate imaging system (SPIRO rebuild in progress; [50]) (b8). Student-designed 3D-printed pipette holders with earthquake safety (c1), open 3D-printed tube racks (rebuilt from Dormant Biology Lab design) (c2), 3D-printed pipette tip aligner for tip box refill (Elster rebuild) (c3), self-designed microfluidics educational workstation (Raspberry Pi-based control of 3D-printed syringe pumps and microscope) (c4), open workstation for integrated single-cell transcriptomics (RNA-seq miniDrops rebuild; [33]) (c5), open 3D-printed microscopy pipetting robot that can be mounted on a microscope (rebuild in progress; [32]) (c6), open-source gel electrophoresis set (self-designed parametric laser-cut gel chamber with open commercial IORodeo power supply and IORodeo blue LED transilluminator) (c7), open thermocycler (Gaudilab PocketPCR built from commercial set) (c8), open self-designed well-plate locator stand (c9), open commercial pipetting robot OpenTrons (c10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001931.g003](profile/Tobias-Wenzel-3/publication/367207550/figure/fig2/AS:11431281113622103@1673985717985/Examples-of-biology-laboratories-equipped-with-open-technology-The-top-images-show-the.jpg)
Examples of biology laboratories equipped with open technology. The top images show the Mboa Lab in Cameroon (source: openbioeconomy.org) and middle and lower images show the Wenzel Lab in Chile. The following equipment is shown: basic commercial light microscope (a1), open hardware thermocycler (rebuild of OpenPCR) (a2), small commercial DNA analysis equipment (miniPCR, bluegel, vortexter, centrifuge) (a3), repurposed Sous Vide as water bath (a4), repurposed pressure cooker as autoclave (a5), selfdesigned open hardware incubator (a6), self-designed open hardware shaking incubator (a7), commercial open hardware 3D printer (a8), use of reagents and open enzymes (a9). Secondhand commercial laminar flow hood (b1), secondhand commercial microscope with custom enclosure and 3D-printed sample and camera adaptors (b2), open source lasercut fluorescence plate imaging station (rebuilt; [48]) (b3), open laser-cut smartphone microscope (Roachscope from Backyard Brains) (b4), open 3D-printed OpenFlexure microscope in fluorescence configuration (rebuilt and star-LED fitted; [49]) (b5), 3D-printed computational microscope (rebuilt with Unicorn Raspberry Pi hat) (b6), open 3D-printed holographic microscope (UC2 rebuild; [31]) (b7), open time-lapse multiple Petri plate imaging system (SPIRO rebuild in progress; [50]) (b8). Student-designed 3D-printed pipette holders with earthquake safety (c1), open 3D-printed tube racks (rebuilt from Dormant Biology Lab design) (c2), 3D-printed pipette tip aligner for tip box refill (Elster rebuild) (c3), self-designed microfluidics educational workstation (Raspberry Pi-based control of 3D-printed syringe pumps and microscope) (c4), open workstation for integrated single-cell transcriptomics (RNA-seq miniDrops rebuild; [33]) (c5), open 3D-printed microscopy pipetting robot that can be mounted on a microscope (rebuild in progress; [32]) (c6), open-source gel electrophoresis set (self-designed parametric laser-cut gel chamber with open commercial IORodeo power supply and IORodeo blue LED transilluminator) (c7), open thermocycler (Gaudilab PocketPCR built from commercial set) (c8), open self-designed well-plate locator stand (c9), open commercial pipetting robot OpenTrons (c10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001931.g003
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Open hardware solutions are increasingly being chosen by researchers as a strategy to improve access to technology for cutting-edge biology research. The use of DIY technology is already widespread, particularly in countries with limited access to science funding, and is catalyzing the development of open-source technologies. Beyond financial acces...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... recent years, a broad portfolio of open technology designs has been made available, enough to equip entire life science laboratories (Fig 3). In this Essay, general-purpose equipment is highlighted for broad interest and as a good way to start engaging in open technologies. ...
Context 2
... this Essay, general-purpose equipment is highlighted for broad interest and as a good way to start engaging in open technologies. In addition to examples in Fig 3, many other examples have been published, including a 3D-printable rotator mixer for incubators [43], a portable CO 2 incubator for tissue culture [44], a 3D-printable spectrophotometer [45], an anaerobic chamber with a DIY catalyst [46], a system for automated parallel microbial cultivation [36], an isothermal well-plate reader for LAMP reactions (MIRIAM), an open source Prusa 3D printer modified for bioprinting [47], and many more. Besides integrated and automated equipment, there is a wealth of simpler opensource 3D-printable designs, such as equipment adapters, covers, clips, sample or pipette holders, well-plate locator stands, physiological models, and more (see Thingiverse, Instructables, Hackster.io, ...
Context 3
... even in low-resource settings, laboratories contain a mix of some relatively new instruments funded by research grants, secondhand equipment (usually older, borrowed from colleagues, moved from other laboratories or projects, and some donated), and self-made solutions, ranging from buffer-mixes, coat hangers, and incubator racks, to the more complex research instrumentation discussed above. The mix of technology types in use is also illustrated in the laboratory examples from Africa and South America in Fig 3. Importantly, expensive setups can still be an option in low-resource settings, although this usually occurs in the context of core facilities when they are made available to other research users that pay for use or as a local service. ...
Citations
... MNT relies on a strong brand and the target group of Linux users who want to use open software as well as hardware (OKF, 2022b). In this regard, the transformational potential of open source innovations is crucial as it features cooperative local production as well as shared economic structures (Bonvoisin, 2017;Calisto Friant, Vermeulen and Salomone, 2020;Wenzel, 2023;Hildebrandt et al., 2022). While open source has become a dominant part in the software industry, OSH is still a barely researched phenomenon (Reinauer and Hansen, 2021). ...
Circular economy is based on extensive cooperation. This requires easily accessible information to involve as many stakeholders as possible. How must technology be designed to make this happen? Open source hardware promises to be a solution. As a formalized model for sharing technical information, it guarantees the necessary information transparency. But what do such approaches look like in practice? Are circular practices considered at the design level? This paper analyzes six open source hardware projects and focuses in particular on the prototype phase, as this is where important foundations are laid. Interviews were conducted regularly over a period of six months and evaluated using a developed open hardware process model. In summary, the six projects not only consider aspects of the circular
economy, but also focus on social and ecological dimensions that enable a circular society. The process model proves to be suitable for describing open source hardware prototyping.
... The maker community is emerging as an influential contributor to instructional content and product design to help accelerate the adoption of new technologies and fabrication practices [18]. Professional designers, engineers, hobbyists, educators, and students increasingly use OSH resources from design-sharing repositories [19][20][21][22][23][24] and rely on resources from content creators to supplement formal instruction such as textbooks and peer-reviewed publications. The maker movement is built on the collection of emerging technologies and practices [25], which enables users to collaborate and create new products [26,27]. ...
This paper proposes a method for increasing the impact of academic research by providing materials for public use, thus engaging the maker community, and by collaborating with internet content creators to extend the reach. We propose a framework for engagement and report a multi-year study that evaluates short, intermediate, and long-term outcomes, with a second effort to demonstrate repeatability of the short-term outcomes. In the first study, we posted forty-one 3D printable compliant mechanisms on public repositories and collaborated with physicist and content creator Derek Muller (Veritasium YouTube channel). Outputs and outcomes from this interaction were measured over 3 years. The framework was exercised again with four new 3D printable mechanisms in collaboration with engineer and STEM influencer Mark Rober. The proposed methods aim to help researchers extend the reach of their work to broader audiences, including professional engineers, hardware designers, educators, students, researchers, and hobbyists. This work demonstrates promising impacts of the framework, including (1) extending public awareness of research findings to broader audiences by engaging the maker community and collaborating with content creators, (2) accelerating the pace of innovation and further hardware-based research through public application of research findings, (3) fostering a culture of open-source design and collaboration among other researchers, engineers, educators, and makers, and (4) increasing utilization of peer-reviewed published content. These outreach practices can be valuable tools for researchers to increase impact of and excitement for their research.
... At the same time, cost of electronic or optical components, powerful processors and high-quality cameras are at an all-time low. Together with simple prototyping through 3D-printing, this has led to the emergence of open-source scientific hardware as a research field (Wenzel, 2023). The open-source microscopy community has experienced the rapid development of different approaches aiming to make microscopy more available (Almada et al., 2019;Alsamsam et al., 2022;Ambrose et al., 2020;Auer et al., 2018;Danial et al., 2022;Diederich et al., 2019a;Hohlbein et al., 2022;Sharkey et al., 2016;Voigt et al., 2019;Wenzel, 2023). ...
... Together with simple prototyping through 3D-printing, this has led to the emergence of open-source scientific hardware as a research field (Wenzel, 2023). The open-source microscopy community has experienced the rapid development of different approaches aiming to make microscopy more available (Almada et al., 2019;Alsamsam et al., 2022;Ambrose et al., 2020;Auer et al., 2018;Danial et al., 2022;Diederich et al., 2019a;Hohlbein et al., 2022;Sharkey et al., 2016;Voigt et al., 2019;Wenzel, 2023). ...
... We endorse making scientific instruments available for more scientists, students, as well as the general public. Our system builds on efforts in open science regarding software (ImSwitch, Moreno et al., 2021) and microscope hardware (UC2 Diederich et al., 2019a) while benefitting from a growing field of open-source microscopy and laboratory hardware in general (Almada et al., 2019;Auer et al., 2018;Hohlbein et al., 2022;Martens et al., 2019;Wenzel, 2023). Taken together with efforts in making fluorescent dyes available (Lavis, 2021), fundamental obstacles to the free diffusion of capabilities and know-how in science are being removed. ...
Fluorescence microscopy is a fundamental tool in the life sciences, but the availability of sophisticated equipment required to yield high-quality, quantitative data is a major bottleneck in data production in many laboratories worldwide. This problem has long been recognized and the abundancy of low-cost electronics and the simplification of fabrication through 3D-printing have led to the emergence of open-source scientific hardware as a research field. Cost effective fluorescence microscopes can be assembled from cheaply mass-produced components, but lag behind commercial solutions in image quality. On the other hand, blueprints of sophisticated microscopes such as light-sheet or super-resolution systems, custom-assembled from high quality parts, are available, but require a high level of expertise from the user. Here, we combine the UC2 microscopy toolbox with high-quality components and integrated electronics and software to assemble an automated high-resolution fluorescence microscope. Using this microscope, we demonstrate high resolution fluorescence imaging for fixed and live samples. When operated inside an incubator, long-term live-cell imaging over several days was possible. Our microscope reaches single molecule sensitivity, and we performed single particle tracking and SMLM super-resolution microscopy experiments in cells. Our setup costs a fraction of its commercially available counterparts but still provides a maximum of capabilities and image quality. We thus provide a proof of concept that high quality scientific data can be generated by lay users with a low-budget system and open-source software. Our system can be used for routine imaging in laboratories that do not have the means to acquire commercial systems and through its affordability can serve as teaching material to students.
... Automating labor-and time-intensive procedures is crucial to improving research quality and throughput, and open science hardware and software (tools which are freely available and modifiable) can help further this goal (Maia Chagas, 2018;Pearce, 2016Pearce, , 2020. Moreover, opensource hardware improves the transparency and reproducibility of science while delivering radical cost savings (Pearce, 2020), enabling less well-funded laboratories (including those in low-income countries) to afford highquality equipment (Maia Chagas, 2018;Wenzel, 2023). ...
Phenotyping of model organisms grown on Petri plates is often carried out manually, despite the procedures being time‐consuming and laborious. The main reason for this is the limited availability of automated phenotyping facilities, whereas constructing a custom automated solution can be a daunting task for biologists. Here, we describe SPIRO, the Smart Plate Imaging Robot, an automated platform that acquires time‐lapse photographs of up to four vertically oriented Petri plates in a single experiment, corresponding to 192 seedlings for a typical root growth assay and up to 2500 seeds for a germination assay. SPIRO is catered specifically to biologists' needs, requiring no engineering or programming expertise for assembly and operation. Its small footprint is optimized for standard incubators, the inbuilt green LED enables imaging under dark conditions, and remote control provides access to the data without interfering with sample growth. SPIRO's excellent image quality is suitable for automated image processing, which we demonstrate on the example of seed germination and root growth assays. Furthermore, the robot can be easily customized for specific uses, as all information about SPIRO is released under open‐source licenses. Importantly, uninterrupted imaging allows considerably more precise assessment of seed germination parameters and root growth rates compared with manual assays. Moreover, SPIRO enables previously technically challenging assays such as phenotyping in the dark. We illustrate the benefits of SPIRO in proof‐of‐concept experiments which yielded a novel insight on the interplay between autophagy, nitrogen sensing, and photoblastic response.
... While BREAD-based DAQ systems are already significantly less expensive than proprietary systems like National Instruments cDAQ [34], custom open hardware like the pyrolysis system developed in this report further increase this cost difference when compared with proprietary pyrolysis reactor control systems. This is consistent with the open scientific hardware literature in general [8,[52][53][54][55], in open-source electronics [56][57][58], and in electronics for other chemical processes [59][60][61][62]. Compared with high-cost proprietary controllers, the ease of BREAD and the functionality are clear. ...
Industrial pilot projects often rely on proprietary and expensive electronic hardware to control and monitor experiments. This raises costs and retards innovation. Open-source hardware tools exist for implementing these processes individually; however, they are not easily integrated with other designs. The Broadly Reconfigurable and Expandable Automation Device (BREAD) is a framework that provides many open-source devices which can be connected to create more complex data acquisition and control systems. This article explores the feasibility of using BREAD plug-and-play open hardware to quickly design and test monitoring and control electronics for an industrial materials processing prototype pyrolysis reactor. Generally, pilot-scale pyrolysis plants are expensive custom designed systems. The plug-and-play prototype approach was first tested by connecting it to the pyrolysis reactor and ensuring that it can measure temperature and actuate heaters and a stirring motor. Next, a single circuit board system was created and tested using the designs from the BREAD prototype to reduce the number of microcontrollers required. Both open-source control systems were capable of reliably running the pyrolysis reactor continuously, achieving equivalent performance to a state-of-the-art commercial controller with a ten-fold reduction in the overall cost of control. Open-source, plug-and-play hardware provides a reliable avenue for researchers to quickly develop data acquisition and control electronics for industrial-scale experiments.
... Back in the days of this work, the definition solely addressed computer software. However, nowadays, the term is much broader and includes additional areas such as open-source hardware [6][7][8], open innovation [8,9], and the increasing use of CAD models in the three-dimensional; (3D) printing community [10,11]. One of the major advantages of the open-source 3D printing community is an economic way of producing individual and customized products, which can lead to the sustainable development of ideas, projects, and, therefore, manufacturable items [4,12]. ...
This study presents the manufacturing process-driven development of an interlocking metasurface; (ILM) mechanism for fused filament fabrication; (FFF) with a focus on open-source accessibility. The presented ILM is designed to enable strong contact between two planar surfaces. The mechanism consists of spring elements and locking pins which snap together when forced into contact. The mechanism is designed to deliver optimized mechanical properties, functionality, and printability with common FFF printers. The mechanism is printed from a thermoplastic polyurethane; (TPU) filament which was selected for its flexibility, which is necessary for the proper functioning of the spring elements. To characterize the designed mechanism, a tensile test is carried out to assess the holding force of the ILM. The force-displacement profiles are analyzed and categorized into distinct phases, highlighting the interplay between spring deformation, sliding, and disengagement. Finally, from the measurements of multiple printed specimens, a representative holding force is determined through averaging and assigned to the mechanism. The resulting tolerance, which can be attributed to geometric and material-related factors, is discussed. The testing results are discussed and compared with a numerical simulation carried out with a frictionless approach with a nonlinear Neo-Hookean material law. The study underscores the importance of meticulous parameter control in three-dimensional (3D) printing for the consistent and reliable performance of interlocking metasurface mechanisms. The investigation leads to a scalable model of an ILM element pair with distinct three-phase snapping characteristics ensuring reliable holding capabilities.
... While BREAD-based DAQ systems are already significantly less expensive than proprietary systems like National Instruments cDAQ [33], custom open hardware like the pyrolysis system developed in this report further increase this cost difference when compared to proprietary pyrolysis reactor control systems. This is consistent with the open scientific hardware literature in general [48][49][50]8,51], in open source electronics [52][53][54], and in electronics for other chemical processes [55][56][57][58][59]. Compared to low-cost proprietary controllers the ease of BREAD and the functionality are clear. The limitations of these controllers of only being able to see one zone at a time, no re-cording of data, and no reprogramming the controller during an experiment without temporarily turning off the controller are all overcome. ...
Industrial pilot projects often rely on proprietary and expensive electronic hardware to control and monitor experiments. This raises costs and retards innovation. Open-source hardware tools exist for implementing these processes individually, however, they are not easily integrated with other designs. The Broadly Reconfigurable and Expandable Automation Device (BREAD) framework provides many open-source devices which can be connected to create more complex data acquisition and control systems. This article explores the feasibility of using BREAD plug-and-play open hardware to quickly design and test monitoring and control electronics for an industrial materials processing prototype pyrolysis reactor. Generally, pilot-scale pyrolysis plants are expensive custom designed systems. The plug-and-play prototype approach is first tested by connecting it to the pyrolysis reactor and ensuring it can measure temperature and actuate heaters and a stirring motor. Next, a single circuit board system was created and tested using the designs from the BREAD prototype to reduce the number of microcontrollers required. Both open-source control systems were capable of reliably running the pyrolysis reactor continuously and the overall cost of control was reduced by more than 10X. Open-source, plug-and-play hardware provides a reliable avenue for researchers to quickly develop data acquisition and control electronics for industrial-scale experiments.
... Educators and students increasingly use maker resources in learning activities 14 including open-source hardware from designsharing repositories 15 . Maker information shared by scientific researchers can be useful to educators to teach and inspire the next generation of scientists and engineers. ...
The availability of maker resources such as 3D printers, makerspaces, and public repositories enable researchers to share information with research peers, educators, industry, and the general public. This broadens the impact of research and inspires its extension and application.
... The literature also discusses the application of open source hardware in various sectors. For instance, Wenzel [5] discusses the use of open source hardware in scientific environments characterized by economic and infrastructural constraints. He argues that DIY technologies, which are a form of open technologies, are already widespread, especially in countries with lower science funding. ...
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, open source hardware development grew steadily. However, the pandemic rapidly accelerated the global acceptance of open source hardware solutions. While open source software has long been vital in the ICT sector, this concept now extends to physical hardware production. Notably, the medical and energy fields have prominently embraced this shift, utilizing 3D printing to actualize open source designs. This study explores pre-pandemic Open Source Scientific practices, aiming to extract insights for a stronger future open source framework. Through an in-depth case study, we illuminate best practices, exemplary applications, and propose a framework for upcoming open source hardware projects. Additionally, this paper categorizes key areas of open source hardware innovation, outlining key sections and areas, thus offering a comprehensive view of the open source hardware landscape.
... With this Hardware X Special Issue our goal is to provide space for detailed descriptions of imaging hardware and control software. The variety of presented modalities covering microscopy, partially already building on each other, is a testament for the unlimited opportunities that open-source hardware in general has to offer [8]. ...
The field of microscopy has been empowering humankind for many centuries by enabling the observation of objects that are otherwise too small to detect for the naked human eye. Microscopy techniques can be loosely divided into three main branches, namely photon-based optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy with optical microscopy being the most prominent one. On the high-end level, optical microscopy nowadays enables nanometer resolution covering many scientific disciplines ranging from material sciences over the natural sciences and life sciences to the food sciences. On the lower-end level, simplified hardware and openly available description and blueprints have helped to make powerful microscopes widely available to interested scientists and researchers. For this special issue, we invited contributions from the community to share their latest ideas, designs, and research results on open-source hardware in microscopy. With this collection of articles, we hope to inspire the community to further increase the accessibility, interoperability, and reproducibility of microscopy. We further touch on the standardization of methodologies and devices including the use of computerized control of data acquisition and data analysis to achieve high quality and efficiency in research and development.
