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Example of a near-infrared (NIR) absorption spectra of pure starch, proteins, oil and water (according to [7]).
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Automatic dishwashing is a process which takes enormous amounts of resources (energy, water, chemicals). However, most of the dishwashing programs are designed and tested to clean the worst scenario for a certain kind of load items (glass, porcelain, etc.) and do not or only partly adapt to the actual load and soiling conditions. Thus, resources ar...
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This study aims to investigate the impacts of factors, including textural properties, surface roughness, and contact angle, on the cleaning performance of food soils and develop a preliminary mathematical model to predict the cleaning score, depending on the soil-surface properties. The force required to remove soil from the surface was determined by a texture analyzer equipped with a newly designed probe. Potato puree and egg yolk soils showed high adhesive forces compared to other deposits. Margarine required the lowest force to detach from the surfaces. A soil-surface characteristic number (SSCN) was constructed from the results of contact angle, roughness, and textural analysis to predict the cleaning score depending on the soil-surface properties. The experimental work presented indicates that a higher SSCN was associated with lower cleaning scores for soil-surface combinations. Furthermore, a predictive model was developed to define the relationship between cleaning scores and SSCN. The applicability of the model was validated by measuring the cleaning performance of caramel and pudding soils on glass, porcelain, and stainless-steel household surfaces by using an automatic method. Therefore, it can be concluded that the SSCN approach can be improved in further studies to predict cleaning scores of soil-surface combinations in the experimental rig or automatic dishwasher.
Near infrared (NIR) measurements have been used for several years to examine the processes taking place in the dishwasher during dishwashing. It is possible to differentiate between the soil components butterfat, oatmeal and egg-yolk and to determine their concentration in the dishwashing liquor quantitatively. Consequently, time-consuming dishwashing tests can be avoided by weighing the dishes. However, this method is also based on a small number of NIR measurements which are carried out intrusively during the dishwashing process, i.e. outside the dishwasher. These few NIR measurements make it difficult to investigate the dynamics of a dishwashing process. In this study, the development, testing and usage of a new online tracking measuring system is presented. The latter was used to perform 38 dishwashing processes, each containing 51 NIR spectra, to develop a calibration model using the partial least squares regression method with cross-validation. This new online tracking measuring system, based on the calibration, can determine the concentrations of three different soil components in the dishwashing liquor during automatic dishwashing. By recording the 51 spectra, it is possible to display a tracking curve for each soil component, i.e. the concentration courses of the dishwashing process over time. This results in a significantly better time resolution and it was possible to investigate the first dynamic part of the tracking curve, i.e. the beginning of the dishwashing process. This could lead to the opportunity to change the state of the dishwasher depending on the concentrations detected in the first step and, secondly, to a more environmentally friendly and cost-reducing dishwashing process.
Olive oil was selected as the oil substrate and hydrolyzed by Candida sp. 99–125 lipase. The hydrolysis rate of olive oil was used as an indicator. Based on the single factor experiment, the effects of dosage of Candida sp. 99–125 lipase, reacting temperature, pH value and water-oil ratio were investigated. Box-Behnken center combination and response surface methodology were utilized to optimize the hydrolysis rate. The results showed that the significant differences of each single factor on lipase hydrolysis of olive oil on the oil-water interface were different. pH value is the first significance factor, and the significance of water oil ratio on lipase hydrolysis of olive oil is second only to pH value. Finally, the mechanism of Candida sp. 99–125 lipase hydrolyzing olive oil at the oil-water interface was discussed.
Automatic dishwashing is a process which takes enormous amounts of resources (energy, water, chemicals). However, most of the dishwashing programs are designed and tested to clean the worst scenario for a certain kind of load items (glass, porcelain, etc.) and do not or only partly adapt to the actual load and soiling conditions. Thus, resources are wasted which could be avoided if a better adaptation to the actual status of the dish-washing process would be possible. It is, therefore, the aim of this study to investigate the possibility of using near-infrared technology to evaluate the status of the dishwashing process by analyzing the content of soil components already dissolved in the dishwashing water. Compared to other methods, the main advantage of near-infrared measurements is the possibility to differentiate between soils or soil components (carbohy-drates, fats and protein) at very low concentrations. Near-infra-red spectroscopy implemented in an automatic dishwasher could observe and evaluate an automatic dishwashing processes by using online measurements of the detachment of soils from soiled dishes. Thirty-seven model emulsions containing detergent, tap water, different soils and soil concentrations were created and measured by using near-infrared spectroscopy to demonstrate its suitability for the evaluation of dishwashing processes. The spectra were the basis of developing near-infrared calibration models for each soil component using the partial least squares regression method with internal cross-validation. The coefficients of determination in internal cross-validation (R 2) are 0.88 for carbohydrates, 0.92 for fats and 0.99 for proteins. Thereafter, the calibration models developed were externally validated with samples of known concentrations of these soil components. The known concentrations were determined during external validation. The results of calibration and evaluation show that it is generally possible to measure very low concentrations of soil components in dishwashing liquor. The applicability to a real dishwashing process and the usage of other soils has yet to be tested.
