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Ephemeral, intermittent, and perennial channels in relation to the ground water table. Dash line indicates the water table (illustration by G. Zaimes).
Citations
... Under the Ramsar Convention (UNESCO 1994) wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water presence, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty, including areas of marine water where its depth at low tide does not exceed six metres. Various classifications of wetlands are in use (EPA 2001;Hu et al. 2017;Ilhardt et al. 2000;Mitsch and Gosselink 2015;Zaimes et al. 2007). Because of their high conservation value, many habitats found in wetlands have been included in the European Habitat Directive (92/43/EEC) (Council Directive 1992), while many of them have been denominated as Nature Reserves, or are Parks, Special Conservation Areas, or other national protected areas. ...
... The riparian wetland zone is usually defined as part of the landscape that borders a body of water. These water bodies can be natural, such as streams, rivers and lakes, or manmade, such as ditches, canals, ponds and dams (Zaimes et al. 2007). The active riparian zone refers to a saturated/unsaturated region that is hydrographically connected to the watercourse and directly influences the flow (Sarwar et al. 2022). ...
... Stream flows can vary widely from year to year and may even dry up during severe droughts, but the groundwater table is always near the surface. Perennial streams are found in both humid and arid regions (Zaimes et al. 2007). When the streams are intermittent or ephemeral, they become under a torrential regime, trees may disappear, and shrubby vegetation grows on the banks. ...
Wetlands, namely the riparian ones, play a major role in landscape and water resources functionalities and provide enormous opportunities for ecosystems services. However, their area at globe scale is continuously decreasing due to appropriation by the riverain communities or by allocation of water resources to other uses, namely irrigation, in prejudice of natural wetlands. Due to the high competition for water, namely for agricultural irrigation, the calculation of the vegetation evapotranspiration (ETc), i.e. the consumptive water use of the wetland ecosystems, is mandatory for determining water supply–demand balance at various scales. Providing for the basin and local levels the reason for this review study on ETc to be presented in an irrigation focused Journal. The review also aims to make available adequate Kc values relative to these ecosystems in an ongoing update of FAO guidelines on evapotranspiration. The review on ETc of natural wetlands focused on its computation adopting the classical FAO method, thus the product of the FAO-PM grass reference ETo by the vegetation specific Kc, i.e., ETc = Kc ETo. This approach is not only the most common in agriculture but is also well used in natural wetlands studies, with Kc values fully related with vegetation ecosystems characteristics. A distinction was made between riparian and non-riparian wetland ecosystems due to differences between main types of water sources and main vegetation types. The Kc values are tabulated through grouping wetlands according to the climate since the variability of Kc with vegetation, soil, and water availability would require data not commonly available from the selected studies. Tabulated values appear to be coherent and appropriate to support field estimation of Kc and ETc for use in wetlands water balance when not measured but weather data may be available to compute the grass reference ETo. ETc and the water balance could then be estimated since they are definitely required to further characterization and monitoring of wetlands, defining measures for their protection, and assessing ecosystems’ services.
... Riparian arteries of the southwestern U.S. comprise less than 0.5% and 2% of the land area in Arizona and the southwest, respectively, but support a disproportionate 60 to 75% of the wildlife (Poff et al., 2012). Best estimates placed the loss of these riparian habitats at 90% (Zaimes, 2007). Previous studies have also demonstrated that warmer, supraoptimal temperatures reduce canopy gas exchange via reduced stomatal conductance (Grady et al., 2013), increase plant stress (Hultine et al., 2013), and are expected to create predictable, linear losses in tree productivity (Grady et al., 2011). ...
... Because mycorrhizal associations are known to assist some plants in water uptake, movement, and water use efficiency (e.g. Querejeta et al., 2003;2007;Egerton-Warburton et al., 2007), they could play an important role in affecting the survival of these trees and in restoration. We used provenance trials with assisted migration to replant a riparian corridor and floodplain after tamarisk invasion. ...
Introduction: Climate change has increased the need for forest restoration, but low planting success and limited availability of planting materials hamper these efforts. Invasive plants and their soil legacies can further reduce restoration success. Thus, strategies that optimize restoration are crucial. Assisted migration and inoculation with native microbial symbiont communities have great potential to increase restoration success. However, assisted migrants can still show reduced survival compared to local provenances depending on transfer distance. Inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi, effective if well-matched to plants and site conditions, can have neutral to negative results with poor pairings. Few studies have examined the interaction between these two strategies in realistic field environments where native plants experience the combined effects of soil legacies left by invasive plants and the drought conditions that result from a warming, drying climate.
Methods: We planted two ecotypes (local climate and warmer climate) of Populus fremontii (Fremont cottonwoods), in soils with and without legacies of invasion by Tamarix spp. (tamarisk), and with and without addition of native mycorrhizal fungi and other soil biota from the warmer climate.
Results: Four main results emerged. 1) First year survival in soil legacies left behind after tamarisk invasion and removal was less than one tenth of survival in soil without a tamarisk legacy. 2) Actively restoring soil communities after tamarisk removal tripled first year cottonwood survival for both ecotypes, but only improved survival of the warmer, assisted migrant ecotype trees in year two. 3) Actively restoring soil communities in areas without a tamarisk history reduced first year survival for both ecotypes, but improved survival of the warmer, assisted migrant ecotype trees in year two. 4) By the second year, inoculated assisted migrants survived at five times the rate of inoculated trees from the local ecotype.
Discussion: Results emphasize the detrimental effects of soil legacies left after tamarisk invasion and removal, the efficacy of assisted migration and restoring soil communities alongside plants, and the need to thoughtfully optimize pairings between plants, fungi, and site conditions.
... Although groundwater contamination may have indirect effects on firefly health, additional concerns for the Southwest spring firefly include the mechanical damage to the landscape (through physical removal of substrate), groundwater drawdowns to support mining activities (including refinement of copper ore, which requires more water than any other mined metal), and other waste products such as mine tailings and rock waste. Each of these impacts have the potential to destroy or severely degrade the ephemeral and riparian habitats this species relies upon (Lewis & Burraychak 1979;Dudka & Adriano 1997;Zaimes 2007), and as such pose a significant threat to the continued existence of the Southwest spring firefly. Factor 3: Disease or predation Many firefly species produce or ingest toxic defense chemicals called lucibufagins to protect themselves from predators, particularly vertebrate predators such as birds (Eisner et al. 1978(Eisner et al. , 1997. ...
... 2022). Terrestrial mollusks, which are considered some of the most imperiled animals in the world, face many of the same threats as this firefly, including habitat degradation and drought (Lydeard et al. 2004 Salt cedar has spread vigorously across waterways of the western U.S. because it is tolerant of alkaline, saline soils and periods of drought (Zaimes 2007). It was originally introduced in the early 1800s as an ornamental tree and a tool for preventing soil erosion. ...
... It was originally introduced in the early 1800s as an ornamental tree and a tool for preventing soil erosion. Other human impacts on waterways, including groundwater pumping, which lowers the water table, overgrazing of cottonwood and willow seedlings, and alteration of flow regimes due to damming, have created conditions that favor the establishment and survival of salt cedar (Zaimes 2007). Other impacts of salt cedar invasion in riparian areas include increases in soil salinity, alteration of soil composition, and increased uptake of water when compared to native riparian vegetation (Ladenburger et al. 2006;Pattison et al. 2011). ...
... Multiple studies show that riverbank greens act as a protective buffer between the waterbody and land-based activities both by filtering nutrients and by trapping nutrients for groundwater (de Sosa et al., 2018;Hill, 1996;Hunter et al., 2006;Meek et al., 2010;Mikkelsen & Vesho, 2000;Ozawa & Yeakley, 2007;Pert et al., 2010). Bank stability and flood attenuation Riverbank greens help in trapping sediment during flooding events and form soil, slow down and spread flood water, increase bank stability and minimise soil loss in watercourses (de Sosa et al., 2018;McKergow et al., 2004;Meek et al., 2010;Ozawa & Yeakley, 2007;Pert et al., 2010;Zaimes et al., 2007). Water temperature regulation Riverbank greens assist in regulating the watercourse temperature by providing shading (de Sosa et al., 2018;Naiman et al., 2010;Pert et al., 2010;Pusey & Arthington, 2003). ...
Circular Economy (CE) is regarded as an efficient strategy to address the challenges arising from the linear ‘take-make-use-dispose’ system of exploitation of resources. Urban land and soil are among the most exploited resources wherein brownfields, the potentially contaminated and currently obsolete land, can be considered the waste of the linear land use system. Recent CE policies and action plans acknowledge soil as a finite resource and set out clear directives for circular management of both soil and land. Brownfields pose possibility to integrate Urban Greenspaces (UGS) in increasingly denser cities to provide a range of Ecosystem Services (ES) and are instrumental in ensuring the liveability of cities. To manage risks posed by contaminants present at these brownfields, UGS can be combined with Gentle Remediation Options (GRO). Gentle remediation options are remediation strategies involving plants, fungi, bacteria, and soil amendments for managing contamination risks and simultaneously improve or at least maintain the soil quality. The overall aim of this PhD project is to develop adequate tools and methods to facilitate bringing brownfields back in use by combining UGS and GRO. This thesis presents four studies: i) a framework for identification of different UGS at a brownfield, ii) a framework for identification of potential GRO strategies for a site, iii) a working process for stakeholder analysis to explore their interests, resources, and challenges related to different UGS at a site, and finally iv) a framework to support the exploration of combining UGS and GRO on a brownfield and which integrates the tools and methods in the aforementioned studies.. The final framework is demonstrated in the case study site Polstjärnegatan in Gothenburg, Sweden, and challenged in a workshop with relevant stakeholders. The necessity of such an approach is validated as it can potentially increase the value derived from the depreciated brownfields progressively and it can support the formulation of long-term goals for sites. Some additional needs are also identified to support the practical application of the framework and they are: procedures to monetise the value generation over time, tools for estimating the time required for risk reduction with GRO (and thus the cost), and tools for selecting suitable plants, bacteria, fungi and soil amendments for more detailed site design
... These data may help to inform scientific and policy decisions regarding whether adaptive management is needed. Zaimes (2007) notes in his book chapter that it is important to note that riparian areas are very dynamic and disturbance-driven (Cartron et al. 2000); these factors lead to rapid changes in riparian vegetation composition and condition depending on the weather conditions and disturbances of a particular year (Larsen et al. 1997). All riparian ecosystems are dependent on disturbances, primarily flooding, to regenerate some of their vegetation communities (e.g., cottonwood) (Shafroth et al. 2000;Baker 2002;Shafroth et al. 2002;Glenn and Nagler 2005). ...
Revitalization of the Colorado River delta riparian corridor and increasing riparian plant greenness and water use may be accomplished by added water and restoration efforts to offset declines measured since 2000 by Landsat. We use the two‐band Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI2; a proxy for greenness) and evapotranspiration (ET, mm/day) using EVI2 and potential ET(ETo) from Yuma Valley. We assess if restoration with only 7.5% landcover had an impact on the unrestored reach‐level landcover by measuring these two metrics, EVI2 and ET(EVI2) by comparing restored and unrestored areas. A key finding is that over 21‐years EVI2 in the unrestored corridor decreased by 23.6% and ET(EVI2) decreased by 32% (0.87 mm/day). Since 2011, the unrestored reaches lost EVI2 (11%) and −0.73 mm/day ET(EVI2) (28%), but restored sites increased in EVI2 (36%) and 0.58 mm/day ET(EVI2) (20%). Water delivered to restored sites increased EVI2 by 33.6% and 1.29 mm/day ET(EVI2) (58%). EVI2 and ET(EVI2) as a function of the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index for drought periods highlight that restored and unrestored sites respond differently. Unrestored reaches are in decline; restored sites show increases in EVI2 and ET(EVI2). Restored sites do not have a significant impact on unrestored adjacent area, but smaller surface flows, a greater reliance on directed agricultural return flows, and deliveries of water to active restoration sites have revitalized habitat and increased ecosystem services in the delta.
... Nutrient cycling: Multiple studies on riverbank green have found that it acts as a protective buffer between water bodies and land-based activities by filtering nutrients, as well as trapping nutrients for groundwater [129,[133][134][135][136][137][138][139]. Bank stability and flood attenuation: Riverbank green helps in trapping sediment during flooding events and forms soil, slowing and spreading flood water, increasing bank stability, and minimizing soil loss in watercourses [129,133,[135][136][137][138][139][140][141]. Water temperature regulation: Riverbank green assists in regulating the watercourse temperature by providing shade [133,138,142,143]. ...
The Circular Economy (CE) is expected to accelerate the use of resources with bio-based origin. Cities have an important role in such an economy, not only as main consumers but also because vegetation provides numerous ecosystem services essential for the well-being of urban dwellers. Urban lands are, however, heavily burdened with both past and present activities and ongoing urbanization. Retrofitting obsolete and potentially contaminated brownfields provides an opportunity to engage with bio-based land uses within the city. At the same time, plants are an important part of Gentle Remediation Options (GROs), a more sustainable alternative for managing contamination risks and restoring soil health. This paper (1) provides a tentative selection of Urban Greenspaces (UGSs) relevant for brownfields, and a compilation of ecosystem services provided by the selected UGSs, and (2) presents a framework covering the 14 selected bio-based land uses on brownfields, including GRO interventions over time. This framework provides three practical tools: the conceptualization of linkages between GROs and prospective UGS uses, a scatter diagram for the realization of 14 UGS opportunities on brownfields, and a decision matrix to analyze the requirements for UGS realization on brownfields.
... Such connection may even extend into central Nuevo León, where the species has been consistently recorded since 1957 (Howell and Webb, 1995;Gonzalez-Iglesias et al., 2004;eBird Basic Dataset, 2019; Global Diversity Information Facility, https://doi.org/10.15468/dl.lp54hg). Conservation and restoration of extant and historical riparian corridors, as well as the regulation of agricultural and livestock practices, are a high priority for sustaining healthy populations, decreasing local extinction rates, and mitigating habitat deterioration and loss (Schnell, 1994;Rosenberg et al., 1997;Beier and Noss, 1998;Haddad and Tewksbury, 2006;Zaimes, 2007). ...
The Common Black Hawk (Buteogallus anthracinus), a widespread neotropical raptor, has been known since 1970s to nest as far north as western Texas, but few breeding records exist for the adjacent area of northcentral Mexico. In 2015, we located two active nest-sites within the Maderas del Carmen Flora and Fauna Protection Area at northwestern Coahuila, in Pecan (Carya illinoiensis) and Arizona Pine (Pinus arizonica) trees, both near natural permanent water sources. Our recent nest site records along with others in eastern Coahuila suggest the existence of a corridor connecting Texas and Nuevo León populations, highlighting the importance of transboundary natural protected areas for species conservation.
... Riverbank green helps in trapping sediment during flooding events and forms soil, slowing and spreading flood water, increasing bank stability and minimising soil loss in watercourse (de Sosa et al., 2018;Kauffman et al., 1997;McKergow et al., 2004;Meek et al., 2010;Mikkelsen & Vesho, 2000;Ozawa & Alan Yeakley, 2007;Pert et al., 2010;Tickner et al., 2001;Zaimes et al., 2007). ...
Circular Economy (CE) will accelerate the emerging shift in resource consumption from finite to renewable and plants are key in enabling the switch as industries would opt more and more for resources with a bio-based origin. Cities have an important role in the process not only as the main consumers of the resources but also because vegetation provides numerous intangible ecosystem services essential for the wellbeing of urban dwellers. But the urban lands are heavily burdened with present activities and ongoing urbanization. Retrofitting the now obsolete and potentially contaminated brownfields provides an opportunity to engage bio-based land uses within the city periphery. At the same time, vegetation can be incorporated with Gentle Remediation Option (GRO), an alternative and more sustainable option over common ‘dig and dump’ remediation to eradicate the contamination concern and restore soil health. ‘Opportunities of bio-based production in urban brownfields’, a Ph.D. research project, concerns with such topics aiming to investigate the possibilities and preconditions for preparing urban brownfields urban bio-based production to foster a bio-based circular economy in the cities. This literature review is performed as part of the research effort to support and capture the wider scope of the project. The review work is focused on outlining the topics, ‘CE’, and ‘urban brownfields’; and establishing a common ground merging these topics from where the rest of the research work can be based on. The novel concept (i.e. CE) are explored in this literature review together with the well-established topic (i.e. brownfields) to set the backdrop and their common subsets (i.e. cities in CE, urban land potential in bio-based CE) are further investigated to guide the review in delivering information necessary for the future project work. Urban Greenspaces (UGSs) and the ecosystem services (ESs) that can be derived from them are discussed as consecutively the potential bio-based land uses and the bio-based products in an urban setting. 14 UGSs are additionally explored to better understand the scope of ESS in the cities.
... Damming, diversion of rivers, and ground water pumping to satisfy the booming population have strongly altered riparian areas in the Sonoran Desert and much of the riparian forests have been lost due to changes in land usage (Zaimes, 2007). Persistent drought through the early 2000s has further dried riparian habitats, and climate change models predict continued drying. ...
The Sonoran Desert has been identified as one of the most distinctive ecoregions in the world, recognized for its columnar cacti such as the saguaro and cardón. It is home to 130 mammal, 400 bird, 100 endemic reptile, 750 bee, and nearly 2500endemic plant species. This great variety of species and habitats is due to the desert’s subtropical climate, wide-ranging topography, bimodal rainfall pattern, and location at the crossroads of several different ecoregions. Geologic processes shaped the landscape and created the Gulf of California, a biologically rich body of water that influences the region’s climate. The desert’s biota faces numerous challenges including increasing temperatures and changing rainfall patterns, loss of native vegetation from invasive species and livestock grazing, habitat fragmentation from transportation and border wall infrastructure, and loss of habitat and riparian areas due to human expansion and groundwater pumping. In the US, nearly3.88 million hectares (9.58 million acres) is protected from development or other incursions, although other threats to the ecoregion are ongoing. In Mexico, nearly 1.5 million hectares (3.7 million acres) have been set aside as biosphere reserves and other protected areas. A large marine biosphere reserve in the northern Gulf of California has been unsuccessful at preventing the alarming population decline of the vaquita porpoise, which hovers on the brink of extinction.
... RaD areas have similarities to wetlands, but also significant differences since wetlands are subjected to saturated permanent or seasonal amounts of water, usually freshwater, and are characterised by specific aquatic vegetation that is adapted to unique hydric soils and water-inundated conditions. Most similarities of RaD areas to wetlands are associated with the ecosystem services they offer [3][4][5]. Some of these common services include water purification, flood control, carbon sinks, groundwater recharge, and coastline and stream bank stability. ...
... Some of these common services include water purification, flood control, carbon sinks, groundwater recharge, and coastline and stream bank stability. Additionally, they present very high biological diversity, owing to their dense vegetation, which attracts a variety of wildlife species, many of which have been characterised as endangered [3,4,6]. ...
Human and wildlife well-being are linked to riparian and deltaic ecosystems. Human impacts and climate changes affect their environmental sustainability. To secure their protection, various national laws and international agreements have been established. Ecotourism can assist in promoting conservation for sustainability and economic improvement. This study reviews work bearing on these matters, especially with regard to the unique region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace in Greece.
