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Energy expenditure per kilometre of river traversed per reach of river sampled: (1) Old Lyme to Holyoke Dam (km 1 to km 139), (2) Holyoke Dam to Cabot Station (km 139 to km 198), and (3) Cabot Station to Vernon Dam (km 198 to km 228). Bars indicate data from 1993 (solid) and 1994 (open) Values are based on differences between standardized means for each sex at two adjacent sites. When values are pooled across years (based on a priori individual standardization), there is a significant difference between female energy expenditure in reach 3 and all other male and female reach expenditures (ANOVA, p < 0.05).
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We examined total and tissue-specific energy content of upstream-migrating American shad (Alosa sapidissima) in the Connecticut River. Total energy depletion over the course of the 228-km migration ranged from 35 to 60%. The approximate contributions of different tissues to energy use during migration were white muscle 57%, subdermal fat 27%, red m...
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... in mean energy content were adjusted for dis- tance between the sampling sites and the adjusted means plotted versus the region of the river between the sampling sites (Fig. 5). The cost of migration on a per distance trav- eled basis for American shad (about 25 kJ·km -1 ·fish -1 ) in our study is similar to that proposed for alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis) in Nova Scotia ( Crawford et al. 1986) as well as to that demon- strated for American shad in the lower reaches of ...
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We examined total and tissue-specific energy content of upstream-migrating American shad (Alosa sapidissima) in the Connecticut River. Total energy depletion over the course of the 228-km migration ranged from 35 to 60%. The approximate contributions of different tissues to energy use during migration were white muscle 57%, subdermal fat 27%, red m...
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... Stich et al. (2019), drawing on the hypotheses and modeling work of earlier studies (Leggett et al. 2004;Castro-Santos and Letcher 2010), found that in some cases downstream passage rates and delays can have a greater effect on population productivity than any other modeled factor. This is an intuitive outcome of American Shad often being at their most energetically depleted when they encounter downstream movement barriers (Leonard and McCormick 1999;Glebe and Leggett 2010). ...
... An apparent difference in fallback behavior due to sex was confounded by potential year effects, as more non-fallback females were tagged in 2015 than in 2016 ( Figure 3B). Female American Shad may spend shorter amounts of time on spawning grounds because the production of gametes and migration costs are more energetically costly for females, or at least larger fish, than for males or smaller fish (Leonard and McCormick 1999;Glebe and Leggett 2010;Raabe and Hightower 2014). ...
A variety of data needs challenge the successful restoration and management of alosine populations, including information on the migration, mortality, behavior, demographic rates, and distribution of fish, both in riverine and marine environments. Radiotelemetry with gastric-implanted transmitters has typically been used to answer some of these questions; however, observing alosines over extended periods and in the marine environment has remained beyond the limitations of this technology and implantation technique. To address these issues, we conducted an acoustic telemetry study on American Shad Alosa sapidissima by using surgical implantation methods. We tagged fish during 2015 (n = 46) and 2016 (n = 52) in the Charles River, Massachusetts, an urbanized watershed where American Shad were believed to be extirpated prior to restoration efforts beginning in 2006. Surgical implantation produced rates of in-river mortality (40% overall) and posttagging fallback (39% overall) that were comparable to those from traditionally used gastric implantation methods. Data from American Shad that were retained for statistical analyses (n = 59) demonstrated that Watertown Dam (at river kilometer 14.3) impeded upstream migration and that New Boston Dam and Locks (at the mouth of the river) delayed postspawn emigration from the river. In total, 49 American Shad were detected outside of the Charles River. The distribution and low number of total detections, despite a large number of nearshore arrays, suggest that American Shad occupy waters farther offshore during their marine phase. American Shad were detected as overwintering on the Scotian Shelf (n = 5) and the Mid-Atlantic Bight (n = 1). In 2017, 10 of the individuals that were tagged in 2016 returned to spawn, providing the first reported data on total migration timing and migratory behavior free of handling effects. Surgical implantation of acoustic telemetry tags is an effective method that can provide necessary and previously unattainable data on a species of conservation need.
... However, multiple passage was also detected in annual returners that were PIT-tagged the year prior (Supplementary Figure 1 available in the online version of this article), supporting this behavior as a natural phenomenon occurring in the population. The process of repeated travel back and forth from the estuary to the spawning grounds can be energetically costly since additional distance traveled consumes energy reserves dedicated for spawning, reducing potential fecundity or the postspawn survival probability (Leonard and McCormick 1999). Understanding why oscillation occurs can help to determine whether this spawning strategy is unique to Alewives in the Carmans River or has gone undetected in other river systems throughout the species' range. ...
The current paradigm in Alewife Alosa pseudoharengus migrations is shifting from a single reproductive event and rapid movement in and out of freshwater to one that recognizes more nuanced movements and asynchronous batch spawning. In this study, Alewives (n = 72) were acoustically tagged in the Carmans River, Long Island, New York, a small coastal river with restored fish passage. Our objective was to examine fine‐scale spatial movements in the tidal and reconnected habitats to identify spawning behavior patterns, including habitat use and spawning periodicity, that can be applied to fishway restoration and species management. Alewives that completed their spawning migration (n = 27) exhibited variability in posttagging trajectories, residency, passage rate, and behavior. The current paradigm consisting of a single upstream migration followed by a downstream migration was only seen in 26% (n = 7) of fish, while 41% (n = 11) deviated from the paradigm and made multiple reversals and numerous movements on and off the spawning grounds. Oscillations spanned from the estuary into the reconnected habitat and resulted in a proportionally large amount of time spent in the estuarine and brackish habitats. Some oscillations also consisted of multiple fishway passage events within a season. Oscillation behavior is likely a naturally occurring spawning strategy that has gone undetected. Consequently, the proportion of individuals of a population that display single versus multiple passage events could result in fishway counts that bias run size estimations and thus population assessments.
... Juvenile Atlantic croaker from the northernmost regions of Chesapeake Bay exhibited high mean subdermal lipids in the late summer, and mean subdermal lipid estimates were generally higher for juvenile summer flounder from the eastern side of the Chesapeake Bay. Subdermal lipids support migration in some fish species (Leonard and McCormick 1999), and subdermal lipid content increases in juvenile Atlantic croaker and summer flounder prior to their emigration from Chesapeake Bay in the fall (Schloesser and Fabrizio 2016). Because well-conditioned juveniles may be better prepared for migration compared with fish in low condition (Litvin et al. 2014), the Atlantic croaker from the upper Chesapeake Bay and summer flounder from the eastern regions likely have sufficient energy reserves for emigration in the fall. ...
High-quality nursery habitats support greater numbers of juveniles that survive to adulthood, but characteristics underlying high-quality habitats remain elusive because their productivity varies spatially and temporally and may be species-specific. Fish condition is an energy-integrative measure of ecological interactions, stress, and activity within a habitat, such that juvenile fish condition is representative of the quality of nursery habitats. We apply spatially explicit models to examine patterns in nursery habitat quality of Virginia estuaries based on nutritional condition for Atlantic croaker Micropogonias undulatus, summer flounder Paralichthys dentatus, and striped bass Morone saxatilis. Environmental factors (water temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity, and depth) positively influenced the condition of Atlantic croaker but had mixed effects on striped bass and summer flounder condition, despite co-location of these species. Over the observed range of environmental conditions, the potential impact of salinity was 1.7 to 6 times that of other environmental factors. The condition of Atlantic croaker was negatively influenced by conspecific density, indicating local abundance mediates habitat quality. Regional habitat effects on fish condition were apparent after adjusting for broad-scale environmental effects: on average, striped bass condition was 22% greater in habitats near tributary mouths, Atlantic croaker condition was 28% greater in upestuary habitats, and the adjusted mean condition of summer flounder associated with coastal lagoons and the eastern side of Chesapeake Bay was 100% greater than conspecifics from other regions. Not all habitats are equally suitable for juvenile stages of estuarine species, but locations that produce well-conditioned individuals reveal the environmental characteristics associated with high-quality nursery habitats that contribute to species-specific productivity.
... Juvenile Atlantic Croakers exhibit a wide range in lipid content because individuals dramatically increase their subdermal lipid stores in preparation for fall migrations from Chesapeake Bay to the coastal ocean (Schloesser and Fabrizio 2016). Because migration may be supported by subdermal lipid reserves (Leonard and McCormick 1999), the fatmeter may be particularly useful for application to species with a migratory life history strategy involving the juvenile stage. The fatmeter may not be effective for species that are nonmigratory as juveniles or that do not readily utilize subdermal lipid stores, such as Striped Bass (Schloesser and Fabrizio 2016). ...
To guide the selection of condition indices for juvenile fishes, we compared the ability of several indirect condition indices (those based on length–mass relationships, the hepatosomatic index, and relative lipid estimates from the Distell fish fatmeter) to assess energy density and lipid content of Summer Flounder Paralichthys dentatus , Striped Bass Morone saxatilis , and Atlantic Croakers Micropogonias undulatus . These species use estuarine areas as nurseries, but they have different life history strategies and ecological niches that affect their energy storage strategies. We tested hypotheses that differences in the distribution and role of lipids as energy stores among species would influence the suitability of condition indices for estimating energy and lipid content. Length‐based indices were most suitable for estimating energy and lipid content of juvenile Summer Flounder and Striped Bass, suggesting that length‐based indices may be appropriate for juveniles that store energy as proteins (i.e., juveniles with low lipid content). The fatmeter suitably predicted energy and lipid content of Atlantic Croakers, indicating its potential for assessing condition of juveniles that store lipids for migration and that display a high range of observed lipid content. Even though a small size range was examined, fish length improved predictions of energy and lipid content for some of the indirect condition indices for Atlantic Croakers and Summer Flounder, suggesting that fish length should be considered when developing relationships among measures of condition. The selection of condition indices should be tailored to the life stage and species of interest based on the energy and lipid storage strategies used by the fish.
Received January 24, 2017; accepted April 24, 2017 Published online August 2, 2017
... This is not consistent with other reports for this species (Alexandre et al., 2014). It is, however, consistent with what one would expect during the reproductive period, when developing ova create added mass and volume, causing females to have greater mass and volume, and hence drag relative to their propulsive musculature when compared with males (Castro- Santos, 2002;Crossin et al., 2004;Leonard and McCormick, 1999). In the current study we were not able to sex nase. ...
... Energy availability can be a limiting factor in migration, particularly in species that do not feed during migration or subsist on energetic Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A 188 (2015) 87-95 reserves, like lipids, accumulated by the preceding stage (e.g., Alosa sapidissima: Leonard and McCormick, 1999). Glass eels may not feed until their entry into estuaries (Charlon and Blanc, 1983;Desaunay and Guerault, 1997). ...
... One approach to restoration is increasing connectivity to upstream spawning habitat (Weaver et al. 2003;Burdick and Hightower 2006). However, spawning migrations are energetically expensive and may lead to substantial mortality because minimal feeding occurs in rivers (Chittenden 1976;Leggett and Carscadden 1978;Leonard and McCormick 1999). No previous studies have empirically estimated within-river survival rates. ...
... While this is an apparent survival estimate, it appears spawning mortality is indeed high as documented emigration events were uncommon in 2010. Mortalities are likely a result of depleted energy reserves (Chittenden 1976;Leggett and Carscadden 1978;Leonard and McCormick 1999), but also could be attributed to predation by invasive flathead catfish whose Little River abundance was higher in 2010 than the previous two years (Raabe 2012). Similar studies and use of the linear spatial capture-recapture model along the Atlantic coast would provide insight into whether differing iteroparity rates are a result of spawning or annual (ocean) survival. ...
In this chapter, we discuss spatial capture-recapture models in the context of populations that are open to demographic processes such as mortality and birth, and movement dynamics such as dispersal or migration. First, we provide an introduction to the ordinary (non-spatial) Jolly-Seber (JS) model, which estimates both abundance and demographic rates. We address how to carry out Bayesian analysis of this model using a data augmentation framework, as well as a few of the technical issues related to this formulation of the model. Using data augmentation, it is easy to provide an individual capture-history formulation of the model, and this facilitates the inclusion of individual covariates. Based on this individual capture-history formulation of the model, it is straight forward to extend the non-spatial to a spatial JS model.
... Notched dam impediments may decrease connectivity and access to upstream habitat, while delays may also negatively influence species. In particular, American Shad rely on stored energy while in rivers and extended delays may lead to increased weight loss and higher spawning mortalities (Leonard and McCormick 1999; Caudill et al. 2007; Raabe and Hightower 2014) or spawning in unsuitable habitat (e.g., sand, silt). High concentrations of fish downstream from the notched dam could increase predation vulnerability (Schilt 2007). ...
Fish, especially migratory species, are assumed to benefit from dam removals that restore connectivity and access to upstream habitat, but few studies have evaluated this assumption. Therefore, we assessed the movement of migratory fishes in the springs of 2008 through 2010 and surveyed available habitat in the Little River, North Carolina, a tributary to the Neuse River, after three complete dam removals and one partial (notched) dam removal. We tagged migratory fishes with PIT tags at a resistance‐board weir located at a dam removal site (river kilometer [rkm] 3.7) and followed their movements with an array of PIT antennas. The river‐wide distribution of fish following removals varied by species. For example, 24–31% of anadromous American Shad Alosa sapidissima , 45–49% of resident Gizzard Shad Dorosoma cepedianum , and 4–11% of nonnative Flathead Catfish Pylodictis olivaris passed the dam removal site at rkm 56 in 2009 and 2010. No preremoval data were available for comparison, but reach connectivity appeared to increase as tagged individuals passed former dam sites and certain individuals moved extensively both upstream and downstream. However, 17–28% did not pass the partially removed dam at rkm 7.9, while 20–39% of those that passed remained downstream for more than a day before migrating upstream. Gizzard Shad required the deepest water to pass this notched structure, followed by American Shad then Flathead Catfish. Fish that passed the notched dam accessed more complex habitat (e.g., available substrate size‐classes) in the middle and upper reaches. The results provide strong support for efforts to restore currently inaccessible habitat through complete removal of derelict dams.
Received August 23, 2013; accepted June 18, 2014
... The spawning grounds of anadromous species are selected following specific abiotic conditions, such as water current, oxygen levels, shadow and granulometry. Furthermore, spawning success is also dependent on habitat conditions, namely the length of the river available, as well as the mean slope and obstacles along the water course (Glebe & Leggett, 1981;Mesa & Magie, 2006;Bjornn et al., 1999;Leonard & McCormick, 1999), among other factors. High flow rates affect the swimming speed and increase energy losses and stress. ...
The concentrations of metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb and Zn) in sediments and the soft tissues of Corbicula fluminea from the Minho estuary (Northwest Iberian Peninsula) were determined to assess the spatial variation of metal bioavailability and to classify the ecological quality of the estuary. Metal concentrations in sediments showed significant spatial variation ( p < 0.0003) and ranged in concentration (dry weight basis) from 0.025-0.36 mg Cd/kg, 7-16 mg Cr/kg, 2.7-24.6 mg Cu/kg, 7.3-45 mg Ni/kg, 4.1-15 mg Pb/kg and 37.3-110 mg Zn/kg. According to the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority metal concentration guidelines for sediments, this first ecological quality classification of the Minho estuary is "Class I/II-Background/Good." Metal concentrations in the soft tissues of C. fluminea also showed significant spatial variation ( p < 0.0001) and ranged in concentration (dry weight basis) from 1.1-2.5 mg Cd/kg, 1.0-1.8 mg Cr/kg, 34-71 mg Cu/kg, 5.8-11 mg Ni/kg, 0.45-1.3 mg Pb/kg and 136-161 mg Zn/kg. The high Cu concentrations bioaccumulated by C. fluminea in the Minho estuary suggest that the estuary should be classified as "Class II/III-Moderately/Remarkably Polluted." Thus, the primary contributions of this work are that C. fluminea proved to be a good and adequate biomonitor of metal contamination in the Minho estuary and that it could be used to assess the ecological quality of estuarine ecosystems worldwide.
... Migration distance and speed, along with river gradient were the primary factors in energy Downloaded by [North Carolina State University] at 08:47 30 April 2014 expenditures (Glebe and Leggett 1981). In the Connecticut River, Leonard and McCormick (1999) found total energy depletion for American Shad ranged from 35% to 61% during their migration of 228 rkm to their spawning grounds (∼25 kJ/km per fish), with differences between sexes, sizes, and years. Those authors stated an iteroparity threshold may occur in the range of 35-40% of energy expenditure (Leonard and McCormick 1999). ...
... In the Connecticut River, Leonard and McCormick (1999) found total energy depletion for American Shad ranged from 35% to 61% during their migration of 228 rkm to their spawning grounds (∼25 kJ/km per fish), with differences between sexes, sizes, and years. Those authors stated an iteroparity threshold may occur in the range of 35-40% of energy expenditure (Leonard and McCormick 1999). American Shad emigrating from the Little River must migrate an additional 212 rkm through the Neuse River, suggesting that total spawning survival to the ocean may be even lower than our estimates. ...
Despite extensive management and research, populations of American Shad Alosa sapidissima have experienced prolonged declines, and uncertainty about the underlying mechanisms causing these declines remains. In the springs of 2007 through 2010, we used a resistance board weir and PIT technology to capture, tag, and track American Shad in the Little River, North Carolina, a tributary to the Neuse River with complete and partial removals of low-head dams. Our objectives were to examine migratory behaviors and estimate weight loss, survival, and abundance during each spawning season. Males typically immigrated earlier than females and also used upstream habitat at a higher percentage, but otherwise exhibited relatively similar migratory patterns. Proportional weight loss displayed a strong positive relationship with both cumulative water temperature during residence time and number of days spent upstream, and to a lesser extent, minimum distance the fish traveled in the river. Surviving emigrating males lost up to 30% of their initial weight and females lost up to 50% of their initial weight, indicating there are potential survival thresholds. Survival for the spawning season was low and estimates ranged from 0.07 to 0.17; no distinct factors (e.g., sex, size, migration distance) that could contribute to survival were detected. Sampled and estimated American Shad abundance increased from 2007 through 2009, but was lower in 2010. Our study provides substantial new information about American Shad spawning that may aid restoration efforts.Received August 13, 2013; accepted December 10, 2013
