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Conducting polymers have become the focus of research due to their interesting properties, such as a wide range of conductivity, facile production, mechanical stability, light weight and low cost and due to the ease with which conducting polymers can be nanostructured to meet the specific application. They have become valuable materials for many ap...
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... a result, the molecular orbital that possess the lowest energy forms the bond between the two atoms, hence it is termed the bonding orbital, and when these overlap is called the valence band, while the molecular orbital with the highest energy (i.e. antibonding orbital) when overlapped is called the conduction band (Fig. 4). The valence band (VB) represents the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the conduc- tion band (CB) represents the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). 27 The gap between the HOMO and LUMO is called the energy gap (E g ) which is the range of energies that is unavailable to electrons. It is also known variously as ...
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... "the fundamental energy gap", the "band gap", or the "forbidden gap". 9,21 The conjugated structure of CPs has been found to be essential to permit the formation of delocalized electronic states. 16 The degree of delocalization determines the size of the energy gap and hence the conductivity of the CP (i.e. metallic, semiconducting or insulating, Fig. 4). 27 This conjugation and alternation of bonds provide a continuous overlap of p-orbitals to form p-p* hybrid orbitals that allows charge carriers (e.g. electrons, holes) to move freely along the polymer structure in a process that mimics the movement of electrons in metals. 28 Table 1 shows the conductivities of some popular CPs. 29 ...
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Citations
... On the other hand, p-doping involves the removal of an electron. [13] Equation 1 represents the general reaction for ndoping, while Equation 2 illustrates general reaction of pdoping, involving both a counter cation (C + ) and a counter anion (A À ). [14] CP þ nRed ! ...
The industrial and academic sectors have been closely observing the advantages of conventional polymers, primarily due to their easy preparation and low manufacturing costs. Recently, there has been a growing interest in conducting polymers (CPs) due to their unique characteristics. These polymers offer improved environmental durability, impressive mechanical and optical potential, ease of manufacturability, and a range of electrical properties compared to conventional inorganic materials. This review focuses on the chemical structures, properties, and synthesis of the most prevalent types of CPs. Furthermore, an analysis of conducting composites is conducted to evaluate their performance in energy storage devices. The review specifically focuses on the growth of their operations in energy storage technologies such as Lithium ion batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors (SCs). It also explores the current challenges faced by CPs potential applications for advancing energy storage systems. This review aims to advance understanding of the role of CPs for energy storage applications. In summary, conductive polymers offer a wide range of applications due to their unique features and suitable production techniques for energy storage system (ESS) application. However, there is still significant work to be carried out to enhance the performance of conduction polymers for ESSs. This overview has provided an introduction to traditional conductive polymers as functional materials, including information on their polymerization processes, advantages, disadvantages and the most promising ESS applications to date, such as various batteries and supercapacitors. It is worth noting that conductive polymers hold the potential to become crucial components in future ESSs. Achieving this potential will require further advancements in synthesis techniques, integration with other materials, as well as maximization and optimization of their capabilities.
... To further harness the advantages of both high energy and power density, battery-supercapacitor hybrid devices have been developed, consolidating these attributes into a single device [47][48][49]. Additionally, a wide array of inorganic materials, including metal oxides, sulphides, nitrides [50][51][52], carbides, fullerenes [7,[53][54][55], and phosphides, either alone or in conjunction with conducting organic polymers like polyaniline (PA), have been deployed in various energy generation and storage devices, diversifying the landscape of materials for these applications [56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63]. ...
Affordable and environmentally friendly electrochemically active raw energy storage materials are in high demand to switch to mass-scale renewable energy. One particularly promising avenue is the feasibility of utilizing food waste-derived nanoporous carbon. This material holds significance due to its widespread availability, affordability, ease of processing, and, notably, its cost-free nature. Over the years, various strategies have been developed to convert different food wastes into nanoporous carbon materials with enhanced electrochemical properties. The electrochemical performance of these materials is influenced by both intrinsic factors, such as the composition of elements derived from the original food sources and recipes, and extrinsic factors, including the conditions during pyrolysis and activation. While current efforts are dedicated to optimizing process parameters to achieve superior performance in electrochemical energy storage devices, it is timely to take stock of the current state of research in this emerging field. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent developments in the fabrication and surface characterisation of porous carbons from different food wastes. A special focus is given on the applications of these food waste derived porous carbons for energy storage applications including batteries and supercapacitors.
... Before 1974, polymers considered as insulating materials due to inaccessibility of free electrons. But nearly 50 years back, the scenario has completely changed when H. Shirakawa, first time synthesized polyacetylene with semiconducting properties and later on in 2000, they received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their groundbreaking work [3][4][5]. Thereafter, various CPs have been developed to meet the needs of industrial communities. ...
Physical Sciences book series aims to bring together leading academic scientists, researchers and research scholars to exchange and share their experiences and research results on all aspects of Physical Sciences. The field of advanced physical sciences has not only helped the development in various fields in Science and Technology but also contributes the improvement of the quality of human life to a great extent. The focus of the book would be on state-of-the-art technologies and advances in Physical Sciences.
... In recent decades, CPs have illustrated their irrefutable place in the fabrication of new batteries [252][253][254][255]. The most commonly-employed CPs to fabricate batteries are polyheterocycles (i.e., PPy, PANI, PEDOT and their derivatives) owing to exhibiting high electrical conductivity (0.01 to 500 s/cm) [256,257]. The application of CPs in lithium batteries would be traced back to the late 1980 s [258]. ...
... These include environmental stability [8]; low operating temperatures, low cost, high sensitivities, and short response time [7]; and excellent dedoping and doping properties [9]. Conjugated polymers possess a π-conjugated electron system across their polymeric backbone which is responsible for the electronic and optical properties [10]. Conjugated organic polymers such as PANI, PTh, PPy, PEDOT (poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), and PF (poly-furan) are widely used in sensors for their high sensitivity and short response time at room temperature [7,11,12]. ...
The investigation into conducting organic polymers and cyanogen halides (COPs-CNX) complexes’ optimization at the M06-2X/6-31+G(d) level, alongside subsequent analyses, provides valuable insights into the interaction mechanisms between COPs and CNX molecules. The basis set superposition error (BSSE)–corrected interaction energies emphasize the pronounced strength of electrostatic interaction within polyaniline and cyanogen halides (PANI ES-CNX) complexes. Conversely, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), polypyrrole (PPy), and polythiophene (PTh) exhibit weak interactions with CNX. Natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis confirms strong interactions between CNX and PANI ES through nitrogen sites, while halogen sites mediate interactions between CNX and PEDOT, PPy, and PTh. Charge transfer analysis underscores increased transfer within PANI ES-CNX complexes, indicating a stronger interaction. Topological analysis reveals non-covalent electrostatic interactions between COPs and CNX, notably stronger in PANI ES-CNX complexes. The outcomes position PANI ES as a promising candidate for CNX sensing, particularly in CNBr detection. Furthermore, this study computes the recovery time for COPs-CNX complexes, further contributing to the understanding of their applicability in sensing applications.
... Additionally, there has been a growing interest in electrochemical energy storage devices that possess qualities like strength, flexibility, low production costs, low self-discharge rates, tolerance to overdischarge, and a long cycle life [14]. Polyheterocycles, including polypyrrole (PPy), polyaniline (PANI), polythiophene (PTh), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), and their derivatives [15], are considered to be highly intriguing conducting polymers (CPs) in the context of battery applications. These materials have been the subject of investigation due to their exceptional stability in atmospheric conditions and favorable electrochemical characteristics. ...
... Polymers 2023,15, 4638 ...
Polypyrrole (PPy) is a type of conducting polymer that has garnered attention as a potential electrode material for sustainable energy storage devices. This is mostly attributed to its mechanical flexibility, ease of processing, and ecologically friendly nature. Here, a polypyrrole-coated rice husk-derived nanosilica-reduced graphene oxide nanocomposite (SiO2-rGO@PPy) as an anode material was developed by a simple composite technique followed by an in situ polymerization process. The architecture of reduced graphene oxide offers a larger electrode/electrolyte interface to promote charge-transfer reactions and provides sufficient space to buffer a large volume expansion of SiO2, maintaining the mechanical integrity of the overall electrode during the lithiation/delithiation process. Moreover, the conducting polymer coating not only improves the capacity of SiO2, but also suppresses the volume expansion and rapid capacity fading caused by serious pulverization. The present anode material shows a remarkable specific reversible capacity of 523 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1 current density and exhibits exceptional discharge rate capability. The cycling stability at a current density of 100 mA g−1 shows 81.6% capacity retention and high Coulombic efficiency after 250 charge–discharge cycles. The study also pointed out that this method might be able to be used on a large scale in the lithium-ion battery industry, which could have a big effect on its long-term viability. Creating sustainable nanocomposites is an exciting area of research that could help solve some of the biggest problems with lithium-ion batteries, like how easy they are to make and how big they can be used in industry. This is because they are sustainable and have less of an impact on the environment.
... A pseudocapacitive material should have high conductivity to improve charge transfer kinetics at the electrode. A conducting polymer must possess charge carriers, good charge mobility, efficient kinetics, and readily available solvated counterions to achieve high conductivity and electrochemical capacitance [11]. The concentration of charge carriers can be increased by n-doping (reducing) to insert electrons into the conduction band or p-doping (oxidizing) to remove electrons from the valence band. ...
The energy crisis has increased the need for energy storage materials with high power and energy density. To solve the problem, scientists have investigated the possibilities of pseudocapacitive materials, which may overcome the capacitive constraints of electrical double-layer capacitors and the mass transfer limitations of batteries, making them better energy storage applications. Conducting polymers, which offer unique qualities such as low cost, good electrochemical properties, and high conductivity, have garnered substantial interest in energy storage devices. Because of their high potential to increase working performance, conducting polymers have been studied in numerous energy storage devices such as supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, making them intriguing alternative materials. This chapter comprehensively overviews conducting polymers’ contributions to energy storage. We address the theoretical foundation of conductivity in conjugated polymers, multiple methods of producing conducting polymers, their uses in supercapacitors, and the distinctions between electrochemical supercapacitor technologies. Furthermore, we highlight recent breakthroughs in conducting polymers for energy storage, providing an overview of the field’s current condition and future direction.
... These compounds are conjugated and show π electron delocalization along their polymer backbone. This main property determines their unique electrical and optical properties [26,[28][29][30][31]. The conjugated structure of CPs is a necessary condition for the formation of delocalized electronic states. ...
... In the case of double bonds, it is also possible to distinguish a localized π-bond (less strong than the σ-bond). Therefore, π-bonds are responsible for an easier delocalization of electrons ( Figure 2) [29,32]. ...
... In the case of double bonds, it is also possible to distinguish a localized π-bond (less strong than the σ-bond). Therefore, π-bonds are responsible for an easier delocalization of electrons ( Figure 2) [29,32]. [32]. ...
This review paper focuses on present issues concerning the use of polyaniline–TiO2 heterostructures as potentially efficient photocatalysts. Conducting polymers such as polyaniline (PANI) are used in the preparation of heterojunction systems with metal oxides like titania to overcome their inherent limitations, e.g., their sole absorption of UV light and overly fast recombination of charge carriers. This review discusses preparation methods, the properties of resultant products and mechanistic aspects. An important part of this paper is its presentation of the major challenges and future perspectives of such photocatalytic materials.
... Band gap energies for insulators, semiconductors and conductors are shown in energy band diagram. Reproduced from ref.[63] with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry. ...
Inorganic semiconductors like silicon and germanium are the foundation of modern electronic devices. However, they have certain limitations, such as high production costs, limited flexibility, and heavy weight. Additionally, the depletion of natural resources required for inorganic semiconductor production raises concerns about sustainability. Therefore, the exploration and development of organic semiconductors offer a promising solution to overcome these challenges and pave the way for a new era of electronics. New applications for electronic and optoelectronic devices have been made possible by the recent emergence of organic semiconductors. Numerous innovative results on the performance of charge transport have been discovered with the growth of organic electronics. These discoveries have opened up new possibilities for the development of organic electronic devices, such as organic solar cells, organic light-emitting diodes, and organic field-effect transistors. The use of organic materials in these devices has the potential to revolutionise the electronics industry by providing low-cost, flexible, and lightweight alternatives to traditional inorganic materials. The understanding of charge carrier transport in organic semiconductors is crucial for the development of efficient organic electronic devices. This review offers a thorough overview of the charge carrier transport phenomenon in semiconductors with a focus on the underlying physical mechanisms and how it affects device performance. Additionally, the processes of carrier generation and recombination are given special attention. Furthermore, this review provides valuable insights into the fundamental principles that govern the behaviour of charge carriers in these materials, which can inform the design and optimisation of future devices.
... Polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, polyphenylenevinylene, and polyacetylene are the most widely used conductive polymers. They can also be easily used in composite production with other materials and increase the adjustability of properties (104). The diffusion rate of immobilized ions into the electrolyte is a parameter that affects the energy density. ...
This review focuses on nanostructures-based systems and aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in energy storage technologies and modified energy storage materials. The transition towards a sustainable and carbon-free energy system hinges on the progress of efficient and safe energy storage technologies. Supercapacitors have garnered significant interest in diverse energy storage applications due to their rapid charge/discharge rates, high power density, and extended cycle life. Nanostructures have conclusively demonstrated their capability to significantly enhance supercapacitor electrodes' performance. MXene, an innovative category of 2D materials, has emerged as a promising candidate for energy storage applications due to its substantial surface area, exceptional electrical conductivity, and versatile characteristics. Supercapacitors, nanostructures, and MXene are the main topics of the research articles and reviews in this special issue, highlighting recent developments in the design, synthesis, and characterization of advanced energy storage materials and devices. Additionally, this study presents an in-depth investigation of various carbon-based nanomaterials, their synthesis techniques, and their performance in supercapacitors. It also emphasizes the potential of recycling waste materials for developing high-performance nanomaterials for energy storage applications. Finally, this review encourages further research and development of advanced energy storage technologies by giving readers a thorough overview of the current state-of-the-art and future directions in this rapidly expanding sector.
