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![Energy availability formula and current energy availability thresholds for physically active females [3, 6]](publication/320227244/figure/fig2/AS:963436213186614@1606712501994/Energy-availability-formula-and-current-energy-availability-thresholds-for-physically.gif)
Energy availability formula and current energy availability thresholds for physically active females [3, 6]
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In a high-performance sports environment, athletes can present with low energy availability (LEA) for a variety of reasons, ranging from not consuming enough food for their specific energy requirements to disordered eating behaviors. Both male and female high-performance athletes are at risk of LEA. Longstanding LEA can cause unfavorable physiologi...
Citations
... Continuous or prolonged LEA is not only related to suboptimal total energy intakes but also increases likelihood of low macro-and micronutrient intakes (Jordan et al., 2020;Vardardottir et al., 2024). That trend was indeed seen for carbohydrate, fiber, and iron intakes in the current study, but chronically low intakes of those and other nutrients would undoubtedly pose a threat to both health and performance (Jordan et al., 2020;Logue et al., 2018). Low carbohydrate availability, especially, has been suggested to increase the risk of REDs (Fensham et al., 2022;Jagim et al., 2022;McKay et al., 2022;Vardardottir et al., 2024). ...
Problematic low energy availability (LEA) is the underlying cause of relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs). Male specific etiology, as well as the duration and degree of LEA exposures resulting in REDs remain to be adequately described. The present study aimed to assess occurrences of LEA (energy availability [EA] <25 kcal/kg fat‐free mass/day) in male athletes from various sports over 7 days. Associations between number of LEA days, physiological measures, and body image concerns were subsequently evaluated. The athletes recorded their weighed food intakes and training via photo‐assisted mobile application. Body composition and resting metabolic rates were measured, and venous blood samples collected for assessments of hormonal and nutrition status. Participants also answered the Low Energy Availability in Males Questionnaire (LEAM‐Q), Eating Disorder Examination—Questionnaire Short (EDE‐QS), Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI), and Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI). Of 19 participants, 13 had 0–2, 6 had 3–5, and none had 6–7 LEA days. No associations were found between the number of LEA days with the physiological and body image outcomes, although those with greatest number of LEA days had highest EEE but relatively low dietary intakes. In conclusion, this group displayed considerable day‐to‐day EA fluctuations but no indication of problematic LEA.
... When involved in a sport that focuses on figure modelling, a number of factors come into play that can contribute to these disorders. These include the high frequency and intensity of training, strict diets, low body fat levels and high levels of stress associated with competition [24][25][26]. It should be noted that our own research showed no significance between the body mass index and weight of the athletes and the total number of points regarded as borderline according to the LEAF questionnaire scores. ...
... These results can probably be explained by the fact that the study was carried out in the autumn/winter period, when most athletes were outside the competition season, when there is a tendency to increase caloric balance and to gain weight. Disruption of the menstrual cycle is also a cause of oestrogen deficiency, which leads to a decrease in bone mineral density, and thus an increased risk of stress fractures [24][25][26]. The results of our own study showed that 36% of the athletes, i.e. nine out of twenty-five women who had a menstrual cycle disruption, had suffered a sports injury in the previous year. ...
Physique competitions are weight-sensitive sports in which stage presentation, aesthetic appearance and posing ability of the athletes are judged rather than physical performance. The aim of this study was to assess low energy availability among female physique athletes by using the LEAF-Q. The study involved 104 females who were physique athletes. Monthly cycle disorders were reported in 58.65% of the women, that is periods stopped for three consecutive months or longer (amenorrhea). This situation occurred before the research was conducted in 43.27% of athletes and during the research in 15.38%. The physique athletes claimed that menstruation changes occurred when there was an increased exercise intensity, frequency or duration. Absence from training due to injury was reported by 27.88% of the women. The LEAF-Q identified 46.15% of the physique athletes as at risk (score ≥ 8) of low energy availability and the physiological consequences related to RED-S. Women who had menstrual cycle disorders were younger and did more training per week. Among women with menstrual disorders, cramps or stomach ache which cannot be related to menstruation occurred more frequently (p = 0.004). Absence from training or lack of participation in competition due to injuries occurred more frequently in the score ≥ 8 group (p = 0.024) thank the ≤ score 8 group. In the score ≥ 8 group menstruation changes, that is less bleeding or cessation of menstruation (p = 0.035), occurred more frequently when there was an increase in exercise intensity, frequency or duration (p = 0.002).
... Several studies have been conducted regarding nutritional recommendations for team sports such as football/soccer [9,10] (and the sex-based differences within these disciplines) [11,12] or rugby [13]. Endurance athletes such as triathletes may be most at risk for micronutrient deficiency because of low energy consumption, coupled with longer physical activity duration and increased sweat rate [14]. However, it seems that establishing hydration recommendations, especially in triathlon, has been neglected in this aspect. ...
(1) Background: Trainers and athletes have always sought to reduce the failure of muscle function during long endurance events. However, nowadays, it is a topic that is generating much debate in the scientific field. Currently, deep-sea water (DSW) intake seems to be a suitable hydration alternative for this type of endurance event. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether DSW consumption during a triathlon event could preserve muscle function after exercise. (2) Methods: Nineteen trained male triathletes (age = 39.0 ± 4.25 years; BMI = 23.67 ± 1.81 kg/m²) randomly performed three triathlons, one of them consuming DSW (Totum SPORT 30 AB, Laboratories Quinton International, S.L., Spain), the other consuming isotonic placebo and the last with tap water-hydration. A vertical jump test with countermovement and an isometric muscle strength test were conducted before and after the triathlon test. (3) Results: There was a significant difference between treatment × time during the isometric muscle strength test. Based on the Tukey post hoc analysis, the peak net force decreased statistically in the placebo (p = 0.045) and control conditions (p = 0.026), but not in the experimental condition (p = 0.121). In addition, all of the conditions studied obtained similar results in the countermovement vertical jump after exercise. (4) Conclusions: As a result, consumption of DSW seems to delay the failure of muscle function specifically in isometric exercises but does not improve performance in sports. Thus, DSW does not alter muscle capacity in a negative way; therefore, its consumption may be recommended.
... This is due to the manifestation of the general trend and objectification of the system of training athletes, the implementation of achievements of scientific and technical progress, the use of opportunities of general scientific disciplines, such as cybernetics, morphometry, system approach, operations research, etc., and the search for reserves for improving the system of training athletes. In this regard, the formation of a complete system of knowledge requires consideration of management and control, selection and orientation, modeling and forecasting, as one of the key directions in the process of studying the theory of training athletes [10][11][12][13][14]. So, in our opinion, the study of anatomical parameters of the femoral area for the purpose of sports selection of promising athletes to achieve high results is extremely relevant and requires further research. ...
It is known that the factor that determines success in sports is the morphological features of the structure of the human body. In order to establish the anatomical characteristics of the thigh parameters of students of Bukovyna who play football and handball, followed by modeling for sports selection, a study was conducted of students of higher educational institutions of Bukovyna (n=129), of which young boys - n=69 and young girls - n=60. The subjects were divided into a main group - 89 students who improved by playing football and handball and a control group - 40 students who did not do the sports. Students of the main group, in addition to the physical activity that was included in the program of their specialty during the year, additionally attended sports sections in football and handball during the year. Medium-intensity training took place under the control of a trainer, the frequency of training was 3.43 ± 1.26 days/week (90 minutes each). Students of the control group did not do the sports. The initial survey was conducted in 2021 year, and the same students were resurveyed in 2022 year. All subjects were subjected to an anthropometric study, according to the method of P.P. Shaparenka (thigh circumference in the upper third, in the middle third and in the lower third, body weight, height). So, it was found that when comparing the first and second measurement, the thigh circumference indicators at the second measurement (in dynamics after one year) were slightly higher in students who play football (young boys and young girls) in the upper, middle and lower thirds than in students who play handball (for students who play football ±3.43 cm, for students who play handball ±2.12 cm). The model for predicting the circumference of the thigh in the upper third on the right: Cpr=β1 + β2 + 0.493w – 0.135h, where Cpr is the circumference of the thigh in the upper third (right), w is body weight, h is height, β1= (49.735 for girls and 44.489 for young men), β2= (–1.391 for the soccer group; –2.321 for the handball group), on the left: Cpl=β1 + β2 + 0.465w, where Cpl is the circumference of the thigh in the upper third (left), w is body weight, β1= ( 25.736 for girls and 20.147 for boys), β2= (–1.333 for the football group; –0.515 for the handball group). The model for predicting the circumference of the thigh in the middle of the right: Cmr=β1 + β2 + 0.460w – 0.183h, where Cmr is the circumference of the thigh in the middle of the right, w is body weight, h is height; β1= (52.567 for young girls and 48.930 for young boys), β2= (–2.235 for the football group; –1.968 for the handball group); on the left: Cml=β1 + β2 + 0.449w, where Cml is the thigh circumference in the middle of the left, w is body weight; β1= (20.716 for young girls and 20.943 for young boys), β2= (– 0.254 for the football group; –1.405 for the handball group). The model for predicting the circumference of the thigh in the lower third of the right: Cdr=β1 + β2 + 0.418w, where Cdr is the circumference of the thigh in the lower third of the right, w is body weight, β1= (25.560 for young girls and 20.165 for young boys), β2= (– 0.039 for the football group; 0.061 for the handball group); on the left: Cdl=β1 + β2 + 0.387w, where Cdl is the thigh circumference in the lower third on the left, w is body weight; β1= (24.638 for young girls and 18.523 for young boys), β2= (– 0.379 for the football group; –0.261 for the handball group). So, it is established that for significant predictors for predicting thigh circumference on the right in the upper and middle third are gender, sport, height and body weight, in the lower third are gender, sport and body weight, on the left are gender, sport and body weight.
... Морфофункціональні моделі можуть бути розділені на моделі, що сприяють вибору загальної стратегії процесу спортивного відбору, спортивної орієнтації і процесу підготовки, і на моделі, що орієнтують на досягнення конкретних рівнів досконалості тих чи інших компонентів функціо-Оригінальні дослідження нальної підготовленості спортсменів [11][12][13][14]. Тому, все це свідчать про те, що для досягнення успіху у спорті необхідний відбір тих спортсменів, який мають анатомічні можливості конкретно для певного виду спорту [15][16][17][18][19]. ...
Ther comparison of anatomical parameters of the thigh circle with their subsequent modeling on 130 students of Bukovina (the primary study was exemination out during September- October 2021, and the reexemination of the same students in September- October 2022). All of the studied were divided into the main group, which was made by students who visited the football section – 46 (35.4 %) and students who visited the volleyball section – 44 (33.8 %), the control group is 40 (30.8 %) who were not in sports. All students conducted anthropometric research, according to the method of P. P. Shaparenko (thigh circumference in the upper third, in the middle third and in the lower third). According to the comparison of the thighs on the right and left in the studied boys and girls who visited the sections in football and volleyball in the upper and lower third of the thigh larger on the right, but only in the middle third larger on the left, students who were not in sports were not done Girls are larger on the left than the right. It was established that when comparing between the fi rst and second measurements, the parameters of the thigh circumference at the second measurement was higher in students who visited football sections (±3.43 cm) than students who visited volleyball sections (±1.9 cm).So, the model for predicting the circumference of the thigh in the upper third on the right: Cpr=β1+β2+0.493W-0.135H, where Cpr – thigh circle in the upper third (on the right), W – body weight, H – height, β1=(49.735 for girls and 44,489 for boys), β2=(–1.391 for the football group; –1.277 for volleyball group), left: Cpl=β1+β2+0.465W, where Cpl is the thigh circle in the upper third (left). β1=(25.736 for young girls and 20.147 for young boys), β2=(–1.333 for the football group; –1.487 for volleyball group). Model for predicting a thigh circumference in the middle on the right: Cmr=β1+β2+0.460W-0.183H, where Cmr is the thigh in the middle on the right, β1=(52.567 for young girls and 48.930 for young boys), β2=(–2.235 for the football group; –0.296 for volleyball group); left: Cml=β1+β2+0.449W, where Cml is the thigh in the middle on the left, β1=(20.716 for young girls and 20.943 for young boys), β2=(–0.254 for the football group; –0.770 for volleyball group). Model for the prediction of the thigh in the lower third on the right: Cdr=β1+β2+0.418W, where Cdr – thigh circumference in the lower third on the right, β1=(25.560 for young girls and 20.165 for young boys), β2=(–0.039 for the football group; –0.502 for volleyball group); left: Cdl=β1+β2+0.387W, where Cdl is the thigh in the lower third on the left, β1=(24.638 for young girls and 18.523 for young boys), β2=(– 0.379 for the football group; –0.323 for volleyball group).
... Furthermore, exercising has a positive impact on health, especially through physical activity (Malm et al., 2019;Sebri et al., 2019). Organized physical activity plays an important role in health, especially physiological, psychological (Logue et al., 2018), and psychosocial health (Andersen et al., 2019). With organized physical activity, the average energy intake increases, resulting in an energy surplus. ...
The elderly are a growing age group and an integral part of modern society. The aging process brings significant health challenges, and therefore, exercise has an important role to play in maintaining the quality of life and well-being of older adults. This review aims to explore the role of health exercise in older adults, including its benefits, appropriate types of activities, and factors that influence exercise participation in this age group. Health exercise among older adults was the subject of this systematic review, focusing on the benefits and effectiveness of interventions. This study conducted a keyword search ("exercise activity of the elderly" OR "physical activity for the elderly" AND "benefits of exercise in the elderly" OR "effects of exercise in the elderly" AND "effectiveness of health interventions" OR "physical health of the elderly" AND "exercise health intervention" OR "fitness in old age") on databases (ScienceDirect: 1,2011 and PubMed 1,039) following the Preferred Report-ing Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to identify articles that addressed the benefits and effectiveness of exercise health interventions in the elderly. Following the exclusion criteria, a total of 15 relevant articles were categorized. The review presented the benefits of health exercise in older adults. In the first group, a 12-week moderate-to-high intensity exercise program was shown to improve various aspects of physical and cognitive health in older adults. These included increases in body mass, functional capacity, muscle strength and reduced risk of age-related diseases. The second group highlighted the benefits of exercise through specific sporting activities, with improved sleep, decreased pain perception and protection from death anxiety. In addition, this group also demonstrated the effectiveness of various exercise therapies in supporting healthy aging. In the third group, the implementation of physical activity and lifestyle was shown to be effective in increasing physical activity levels among older adults and helping to prevent decline in physical function. This review highlights the importance of health exercise in improving the health and well-being of older adults. The findings can serve as a foundation for designing more effective interventions to support active and healthy lifestyles among older adults. This comprehensive strategy aims to enhance the overall well-being of the elderly population, fostering a better quality of life and mitigating the impact of age-related ailments. As such, it necessitates an approach that takes into account individual requirements and constraints. Beyond its health advantages, exercise holds significant social implications. Engaging in physical activity facilitates social interaction for older adults, helping them sustain connections with their community, friends, and family, thereby addressing the prevalent issue of social isolation. In this context, the involvement of family, healthcare professionals, and the community plays a pivotal role in supporting the elderly's participation in physical activities. Providing education, assistance, and cultivating a conducive environment for exercise are crucial measures to ensure an optimal quality of life for the elderly demographic. Keywords: Sports health, sports benefits, physical activity, older age, active lifestyle
... Thyroid hormones have recently been discussed within the context of the female athlete triad, low energy availability (LEA), and relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S; Logue et al. 2018;De Souza et al. 2014;Mountjoy et al. 2018). Though these conditions were not assessed in this study, thyroid hormones provide insight into overall recovery from training. ...
Introduction
Ironman triathletes undergo high workloads during competition preparation which can result in nonfunctional overreaching or overtraining syndrome if not matched with adequate recovery.
Purpose
The purpose of this case study was to observe changes in physiological and psychological status over the course of a competitive season in a free-living triathlete.
Methods
The subject was a 41-year-old triathlete competing in three 113.1-km events. Over the course of a 40-week period, the participant arrived at the laboratory every 4 weeks and underwent body composition testing via air displacement plethysmography, a blood draw for analysis of various biomarkers, and a treadmill-based lactate threshold test. Workload during training and competitions was monitored via a wearable heart rate-monitoring device.
Results
Throughout the season, training volume remained high (12.5 ± 3.4 h/week) and body mass and fat-free mass (FFM) continuously decreased, while biomarkers including cortisol, testosterone, and markers of immunological status exhibited minor changes. Laboratory performance remained relatively consistent, while competition performance continually improved. Following the completion of the competitive period, training volume decreased, FFM remained below baseline levels, free cortisol increased, and both free and total testosterone decreased.
Conclusions
Workload and recovery seem to have been properly managed throughout the season, evidenced by minimal fluctuations in endocrine and immunological markers. The reason for changes observed in testosterone, cortisol, and body composition following the last competition is unclear, though it may be attributed to changes in stressors and recovery practices outside of training. It is recommended that athletes follow a structured plan during the transition period into the offseason to ensure recovery of physiological state and to set up a productive offseason.
... It was reported that longer (> 145 km) race performance was correlated with peak velocity during an incremental treadmill test 8 , suggesting that muscle power may contribute to ultra-endurance performance. Skeletal muscle and power decrease with age 27 , and endurance athletes have been reported to have low energy availability, defined as dietary energy intake minus exercise energy expenditure 28,29 . Energy deficiency can cause muscle degradation as a source of energy 30 . ...
Ultra-endurance events have gained global participation, whereas the critical factors of competition results remain to be well elucidated. This study used a nutritional approach to evaluate the association of competition results with carbohydrate intake and blood glucose control during a 100-mile ultramarathon. This observational study was conducted in the 2021 LAKE BIWA 100, which covered 100 miles (169 km) and 10,500 m elevation. The course was divided into 9 segments by aid station. According to the competition results, 22 participants (18 men and 4 women) were divided into higher finishers (n = 7), lower finishers (n = 9), and non-finishers (n = 6). The participants self-recorded their overall dietary intake throughout the race. Glucose levels were monitored every 15 min by a flash glucose monitoring system. Running speed in each segment was standardized to the average of the top five finishers for each gender. Among finishers, the carbohydrate intakes were significantly higher in the higher finishers than in the lower finishers during overall segments, especially in the first half of the race (p < 0.05). There was a significant positive correlation between running speed and carbohydrate intake in the lower finishers (rho = 0.700, p = 0.036). Two-way ANOVA analysis revealed that lowering glucose levels in each segment were more frequently observed in the lower finishers compared to the higher finishers (p = 0.012). Compared to the higher finishers, the lower finishers exhibited significantly greater fluctuations (⊿highest-lowest) in glucose levels (p < 0.001). The fluctuations in glucose levels were significantly and negatively correlated with the running speed of the finishers (rho = − 0.612, p = 0.012). Faster runners consume high amounts of carbohydrates and maintain glucose levels during the 100-mile ultramarathon on the trail, especially at the beginning. Lowering and fluctuating glucose levels during the race are associated with lower running speed in endurance athletes.
... Fat-free mass (FFM) represents functional, metabolically active tissue that contributes to strength and force production and plays a key role in sports performance [1]. When fat mass (FM) is in excess, it can hinder performance and adversely affect physiological systems, such as the endocrine system (by increasing the production of cortisol and leptin) as well as the immune system through heightened inflammation [2]. Body composition assessment in sport is consequently critically important for the qualification of athletes as well as monitoring the extreme conditions surrounding sports participation including continuous dieting, energy deficits, and/or extreme weight-loss practices [3]. ...
... The following equation is traditionally used in sports science literature to define energy availability (EA): EA (kcal/kg fat-free mass (FFM)/day) = energy intake (EI; kcal) − exercise energy expenditure (EEE; kcal), normalized to fat-free mass (FFM; kg) [7]. It is often recognized that reduced or subclinical EA ranges from 30-45 kcal/kg FFM/day, which can serve as a tolerable range for athletes seeking to lose weight as part of a diet or exercise program that is short in duration [7]. ...
... The following equation is traditionally used in sports science literature to define energy availability (EA): EA (kcal/kg fat-free mass (FFM)/day) = energy intake (EI; kcal) − exercise energy expenditure (EEE; kcal), normalized to fat-free mass (FFM; kg) [7]. It is often recognized that reduced or subclinical EA ranges from 30-45 kcal/kg FFM/day, which can serve as a tolerable range for athletes seeking to lose weight as part of a diet or exercise program that is short in duration [7]. Typically, LEA is defined as less than 30 kcal/kg FFM/day and illustrates an unsafe energy balance for optimal body function [7]. ...
... It is often recognized that reduced or subclinical EA ranges from 30-45 kcal/kg FFM/day, which can serve as a tolerable range for athletes seeking to lose weight as part of a diet or exercise program that is short in duration [7]. Typically, LEA is defined as less than 30 kcal/kg FFM/day and illustrates an unsafe energy balance for optimal body function [7]. Physiological responses to the dose and duration of LEA may vary depending on sex, sport type, and genetics [7]. ...
The purpose of this narrative review is to identify health and performance consequences associated with LCA in female endurance athletes. The intake of carbohydrates (CHO) before, during, and after exercise has been demonstrated to support sport performance, especially endurance activities which rely extensively on CHO as a fuel source. However, low energy availability (LEA) and low carbohydrate availability (LCA) are common in female athletes. LEA occurs when energy intake is insufficient compared to exercise energy expenditure, and LEA-related conditions (e.g., Female Athlete Triad (Triad) and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S)) are associated with a myriad of health and performance consequences. The RED-S model highlights 10 health consequences and 10 performance consequences related to LEA. The independent effect of LCA on health and performance has been under-researched, despite current CHO intake being commonly insufficient in athletes. It is proposed that LCA may not only contribute to LEA but also have independent health and performance consequences in athletes. Furthermore, this review highlights current recommendations for CHO intake, as well as recent data on LCA prevalence and menstrual cycle considerations. A literature review was conducted on PubMed, Science Direct, and ResearchGate using relevant search terms (i.e., “low carbohydrate/energy availability”, “female distance runners”). Twenty-one articles were identified and twelve met the inclusion criteria. The total number of articles included in this review is 12, with 7 studies illustrating that LCA was associated with direct negative health and/or performance implications for endurance-based athletes. Several studies included assessed male athletes only, and no studies included a female-only study design. Overall, the cumulative data show that female athletes remain underrepresented in sports science research and that current CHO intake recommendations and strategies may fail to consider female-specific adaptations and hormone responses, such as monthly fluctuations in estrogen and progesterone throughout the menstrual cycle. Current CHO guidelines for female athletes and exercising women need to be audited and explored further in the literature to support female athlete health and performance.
