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Effects of GA3 and PAC on fruit pericarp cells. a Microscopic longitudinal sections of pericarp of GA3 and PAC treatment fruits. b The mean longitudinal cell length and c longitudinal cell numbers of GA3 and PAC treatment fruits. Bars = 0.2 μm; ex, exocarp; m, mesocarp. Asterisk indicates a significant difference between treatment lines and control lines by t test, *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01
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Fruit shape and ripening are major horticultural traits for many fruits and vegetable crops. Changes in fruit shape and ripening are often accomplished by altered cell division or cell expansion patterns. Gibberellic acids (GAs) are essential for tomato fruit development; however, the exact role and the underlying mechanism are still elusive. To el...
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Several phytohormones modulate ripening in non-climacteric fruits, which is triggered by abscisic acid (ABA). Gibberellins (GAs) are present during the onset of ripening in sweet cherry fruits, and exogenous gibberellic acid (GA 3) application delays ripening, though this effect is variety-dependent. Although an ABA accumulation delay has been repo...
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... The process of fruit shape formation and ripening requires the involvement of various hormones such as auxin, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid and ethylene [25,26]. For example, gibberellic acids (GAs) were well correlated with cell division and expansion [26,27]. ...
... The process of fruit shape formation and ripening requires the involvement of various hormones such as auxin, cytokinins, gibberellins, abscisic acid and ethylene [25,26]. For example, gibberellic acids (GAs) were well correlated with cell division and expansion [26,27]. Eriksson et al. [28] found that higher endogenous GA levels promoted more and longer cells, fruit elongation could be induced by higher exogenous GA3s levels [26]. ...
... For example, gibberellic acids (GAs) were well correlated with cell division and expansion [26,27]. Eriksson et al. [28] found that higher endogenous GA levels promoted more and longer cells, fruit elongation could be induced by higher exogenous GA3s levels [26]. Southwick and Glozer [29] ...
Fruit shape is an important character of watermelon. And the compositions of rhizospheric and endophytic microorganisms of watermelon with different fruit shape also remains unclear. To elucidate the biological mechanism of watermelon fruit shape formations, the rhizospheric and endophytic microbial community compositions between oval (OW) and circular watermelons (CW) were analyzed. The results showed that except of the rhizospheric bacterial richness (P < 0.05), the rhizospheric and endophytic microbial (bacterial and fungal) diversity were not statistically significant between OW and CW (P > 0.05). However, the endophytic microbial (bacterial and fungal) compositions were significantly different. Firstly, Bacillus, Rhodanobacter, Cupriavidus, Luteimonas, and Devosia were the unique soil dominant bacterial genera in rhizospheres of circular watermelon (CW); In contrast, Nocardioides, Ensifer, and Saccharomonospora were the special soil dominant bacterial genera in rhizospheres of oval watermelons (OW); Meanwhile, Cephalotrichum, Neocosmospora, Phialosimplex, and Papulaspora were the unique soil dominant fungal genera in rhizospheres of circular watermelon (CW); By contrast, Acremonium, Cladosporium, Cryptococcus_f__Tremellaceae, Sodiomyces, Microascus, Conocybe, Sporidiobolus, and Acremonium were the unique soil dominant fungal genera in rhizospheres of oval watermelons (OW). Additionally, Lechevalieria, Pseudorhodoferax, Pseudomonas, Massilia, Flavobacterium, Aeromicrobium, Stenotrophomonas, Pseudonocardia, Novosphingobium, Melittangium, and Herpetosiphon were the unique dominant endophytic bacterial genera in stems of CW; In contrast, Falsirhodobacter, Kocuria, and Kineosporia were the special dominant endophytic genera in stems of OW; Moreover, Lectera and Fusarium were the unique dominant endophytic fungal genera in stems of CW; By contrast, Cercospora only was the special dominant endophytic fungal genus in stems of OW. All above results suggested that watermelons with different fruit shapes exactly recruited various microorganisms in rhizospheres and stems. Meanwhile, the enrichments of the different rhizosphric and endophytic microorganisms could be speculated in relating to watermelon fruit shapes formation.
... It has been demonstrated that the rational application of exogenous hormones can have an effect on the shape of plant fruits [16]. Plant hormones, including gibberellins, cytokinins, and auxins, are continuously produced in the seed, stimulating tissue growth and development around the fruit [17]. Fluctuating endogenous hormone levels in the fruit during different growth stages impact fruit shape. ...
... Research indicates that various plant hormones, including gibberellins, cytokinins, and auxins, are produced in plant seeds, stimulating the growth and development of surrounding tissues. By regulating the distribution and concentration of plant hormones within fruit tissues, plants can achieve shape variation [17]. The gene ZjLEC2 (Zj01G016210), enriched in seed development (GO:0048316), was identified as a B3 domain-containing transcription factor through protein sequence alignment. ...
Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba) exhibits a rich diversity in fruit shape, with natural occurrences of gourd-like, flattened, and other special shapes. Despite the ongoing research into fruit shape, studies integrating elliptical Fourier descriptors (EFDs) with both Short Time-series Expression Miner (STEM) and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) for gene discovery remain scarce. In this study, six cultivars of jujube fruits with distinct shapes were selected, and samples were collected from the fruit set period to the white mature stage across five time points for shape analysis and transcriptome studies. By combining EFDs with WGCNA and STEM, the study aimed to identify the critical periods and key genes involved in the formation of jujube fruit shape. The findings indicated that the D25 (25 days after flowering) is crucial for the development of jujube fruit shape. Moreover, ZjAGL80, ZjABI3, and eight other genes have been implicated to regulate the shape development of jujubes at different periods of fruit development, through seed development and fruit development pathway. In this research, EFDs were employed to precisely delineate the shape of jujube fruits. This approach, in conjunction with transcriptome, enhanced the precision of gene identification, and offered an innovative methodology for fruit shape analysis. This integration facilitates the advancement of research into the morphological characteristics of plant fruits, underpinning the development of a refined framework for the genetic underpinnings of fruit shape variation.
... In horticultural crops, the fruit shape formation of tomato, cucumber, and peach fruit has been studied intensively [2,4,5]. In tomato, the application of exogenous auxin and gibberellin can produce elongated fruit, whereas the application of gibberellin 2 of 12 inhibitor paclobutrazol results in flatter fruits [6][7][8]. With the development of sequencing technology, several genes thought to control the fruit shape of tomato were identified [9], such as locule number (LC) and fascinated (FAS), which affect fruit shape by regulating locule number, SUN, which encodes for a protein that positively regulates fruit elongation [10], and OVATE, which encodes a negative regulator of growth that reduces fruit length [11]. ...
... Therefore, stage 2-3 (June 11-June 25) was crucial to persimmon fruit shape formation. exogenous auxin and gibberellin can produce elongated fruit, whereas the application of gibberellin inhibitor paclobutrazol results in flatter fruits [6][7][8]. With the development of sequencing technology, several genes thought to control the fruit shape of tomato were identified [9], such as locule number (LC) and fascinated (FAS), which affect fruit shape by regulating locule number, SUN, which encodes for a protein that positively regulates fruit elongation [10], and OVATE, which encodes a negative regulator of growth that reduces fruit length [11]. ...
Fruit shape is an important external feature when consumers choose their preferred fruit varieties. Studying persimmon (Diospyros kaki Thunb.) fruit shape is beneficial to increasing its commodity value. However, research on persimmon fruit shape is still in the initial stage. In this study, the mechanism of fruit shape formation was studied by cytological observations, phytohormone assays, and transcriptome analysis using the long fruit and flat fruit produced by ‘Yaoxianwuhua’ hermaphroditic flowers. The results showed that stage 2–3 (June 11–June 25) was the critical period for persimmon fruit shape formation. Persimmon fruit shape is determined by cell number in the transverse direction and cell length in the longitudinal direction. High IAA, GA4, ZT, and BR levels may promote long fruit formation by promoting cell elongation in the longitudinal direction, and high GA3 and ABA levels may be more conducive to flat fruit formation by increasing the cell number in the transverse direction and inhibiting cell elongation in the longitudinal direction, respectively. Thirty-two DEGs related to phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling pathways and nine DEGs related to cell division and cell expansion may be involved in the persimmon fruit shape formation process. These results provide valuable information for regulatory mechanism research on persimmon fruit formation.
... Previous research indicated that the overexpression of the tomato BRI1 gene, a receptor protein for BR, enhanced FR and ETH biosynthesis [67]. Conversely, GA inhibited the transcript levels of ETH-related genes, leading to a delay in tomato ripening [68]. Thus, the application of exogenous ABA, JA, and BR treatments on tomato fruits resulted in accelerated FR [69,70]. ...
In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), the ripening of fruit is regulated by the selective expression of ripening-related genes, and this procedure is controlled by transcription factors (TFs). In the various plant-specific TF families, the no apical meristem (NAM), Arabidopsis thaliana activating factor 1/2 (ATAF1/2), and cup-shaped cotyledon 2 (CUC2; NAC) TF family stands out and plays a significant function in plant physiological activities, such as fruit ripening (FR). Despite the numerous genes of NAC found in the tomato genome, limited information is available on the effects of NAC members on FR, and there is also a lack of studies on their target genes. In this research, we focus on SlNAP1, which is a NAC TF that positively influences the FR of tomato. By employing CRISPR/Cas9 technology, compared with the wild type (WT), we generated slnap1 mutants and observed a delay in the ethylene production and color change of fruits. We employed the yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) and dual-luciferase reporter (DLR) assays to confirm that SlNAP1 directly binds to the promoters of two crucial genes involved in gibberellin (GA) degradation, namely SlGA2ox1 and SlGA2ox5, thus activating their expression. Furthermore, through a yeast two-hybrid (Y2H), bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BIFC) and luciferase (LUC) assays, we established an interaction between SlNAP1 and SlGID1. Hence, our findings suggest that SlNAP1 regulates FR positively by activating the GA degradation genes directly. Additionally, the interaction between SlNAP1 and SlGID1 may play a role in SlNAP1-induced FR. Overall, our study provides important insights into the molecular mechanisms through which NAC TFs regulate tomato FR via the GA pathway.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s11658-024-00577-7.
... For instance, auxins are known to promote cell elongation, which is a critical process during leaf development [9][10][11]. Gibberellins, on the other hand, participate in a range of processes, including seed germination, elongation of stems, and the development of fruits [12][13][14]. Cytokinins contribute to cell division, differentiation, the formation of lateral buds, and shoot growth [15][16][17][18]. Brassinosteroids regulate cell elongation and division, stress responses, and the formation of vascular tissues [19]. ...
The size of leaves is a vital factor in the development and overall biomass of a plant, serving as a key indicator of how a plant adapts to its environment. Rhamnus heterophylla, a species known for its heteromorphic leaves of varying sizes, presents an intriguing case for studying leaf development at the molecular level. To gain insights for further studies on the underlying mechanisms, we constructed a comprehensive reference transcriptome database using both SMART sequencing and Illumina RNA-seq technologies. Our analysis of the transcriptome data identified 88,546 isoforms, featuring an N50 size of 2386 base pairs. Furthermore, we identified 2932 transcription factors from 55 gene families, along with 14,947 unigenes that underwent alternative splicing. By comparing the gene expression patterns between large and small leaves, we pinpointed 982 differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Among these DEGs, 116 genes exhibit significantly greater activity in small leaves, while 866 genes display significantly greater activity in large leaves. Functional enrichment analyses revealed the significant involvement of these DEGs in various hormone signaling pathways. Notably, we detected a significant decrease in the expression of several genes associated with auxin synthesis, such as ARFs, GRF8, and IAA27, in small leaves. This finding sheds light on their potential role in leaf size regulation in R. heterophylla, providing valuable insights into the genes underlying this mechanism.
... Currently, GAs are bioinputs that have expanded the market in recent years, having been mainly used in horticulture [128][129][130][131]. Recent studies also show that gibberellin has potential applications as a biostimulant related to the main agricultural products of developing countries like corn [132,133], soybeans [134,135], sugarcane [136,137], and cotton [138]. ...
Agriculture plays a major role on society, especially in developing countries which rely on commodity exportation markets. To maintain high crop productivity, the use of agrochemicals was once employed as the main strategy, which in turn affected soil, water, and human health. In order to aid this issue, identifying some alternatives, such as the implementation of biofertilizers and inoculants as bioinputs in modern agriculture, are imperative to improve ecosystem quality. Among these bioinputs, a few bioproducts have shown good performances, such as phytohormones (e.g., auxins and giberellins), biosurfactants, and other enzymes; thus, it is extremely important to assure the quality and feasibility of their production in biorefinery scenarios. These bioproducts can be synthesized through fermentation processes through utilizing plant biomasses and agricultural byproducts as carbon sources. In this sense, to increase the tecno-economical availability of these processes, the implementation of solid-state fermentation (SSF) has shown great potential due to its ease of operation and cost-attractiveness. Therefore, this study aims to describe the main substrates used in SSF systems for the production of potential bioinputs; their associated operation hurdles, parameters, and conditions selection; the most suitable microorganisms; and the underlying mechanisms of these molecules in soil dynamics. Within this context, this study is expected to contribute to the development of new processes in modern biorefineries and to the mitigation of environmental impacts.
... In tomato production, fruit shape plays an essential role in economic outcomes, determining the main use of a particular variety, and is a key element in consumer choice and purchase [45]. A tomato's economic value is determined by both yield and quality. ...
Research on silicon (Si), an element considered beneficial for plant growth, has focused on abiotic and biotic stress mitigation. However, the effect of Si on tomato fruit quality under normal growth conditions remains unclear. This study investigated the effects of applying different levels of Si (0 mmol·L−1 [CK], 0.6 mmol·L−1 [T1], 1.2 mmol·L−1 [T2], and 1.8 mmol·L−1 [T3]) in foliar sprays on tomato fruit quality cultivated in substrates, and the most beneficial Si level was found. Compared to CK, exogenous Si treatments had a positive influence on the appearance and nutritional quality of tomato fruits at the mature green, breaker, and red ripening stages. Of these, T2 treatment significantly increased peel firmness and single-fruit weight in tomato fruits. The contents of soluble sugars, soluble solids, soluble proteins, and vitamin C were significantly higher, and the nitrate content was significantly lower in the T2 treatment than in the CK treatment. Cluster analysis showed that T2 produced results that were significantly different from those of the CK, T1, and T3 treatments. During the red ripening stage, the a* values of fruits in the T2 treatment tomato were significantly higher than those in the other three treatments. Moreover, the lycopene and lutein contents of the T2 treatment increased by 12.90% and 17.14%, respectively, compared to CK. T2 treatment significantly upregulated the relative gene expression levels of the phytoene desaturase gene (PDS), the lycopene ε-cyclase gene (LCY-E), and the zeaxanthin cyclooxygenase gene (ZEP) in the carotenoid key genes. The total amino acid content in tomato fruits in the T2 treatment was also significantly higher than that of CK. In summary, foliar spraying of 1.2 mmol·L−1 exogenous Si was effective in improving the appearance and nutritional quality of tomato fruits under normal growth conditions. This study provides new approaches to further elucidate the application of exogenous silicon to improve tomato fruit quality under normal conditions.
... Based on the data compiled, the present work poses the question as to whether this fruit growth mechanism of 'Picual' could be regarded as similar to that of other olive cultivars with large, elongated fruit or whether this specific fruit pulp growth regulation is unique to the cultivar 'Picual'. Previous studies have shown that the manipulation of GA levels can influence both fruit size and morphology [49,52,[83][84][85][86]. Moreover, a recent work has revealed tight connections between fruit shape variation and microtubules through integration of phytohormones, including GAs, auxin, and BRs [87]. ...
... Previous studies have shown GAs to be associated with fruit ripening [83,86,[106][107][108]. In non-climacteric fruit, GA and ABA often counteract each other in the regulation of the fruit ripening [85]. ...
... Consequently, the present study indicates that GA 1 could play a dual regulatory role in olives, firstly promoting the growth of olive elongated fruit mainly by cell expansion, and secondly, participating afterwards in shortening the fruit ripening duration. These results agree with findings elsewhere [86] indicating that the manipulation of GA levels can simultaneously influence tomato fruit shape and ripening, implying that a common regulatory mechanism exists in different plant species. Furthermore, GAdeficient mutant fruits present with several developmental disorders, including reduced fruit size, and delayed ripening [109][110][111]. ...
The cultivated olive (Olea europaea L. subsp. europaea var. europaea) is one of the most valuable fruit trees worldwide. However, the hormonal mechanisms underlying the fruit growth and ripening in olives remain largely uncharacterized. In this study, we investigated the physiological and hormonal changes, by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS), as well as the expression patterns of hormone-related genes, using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis, during fruit growth and ripening in two olive cultivars, ‘Arbequina’ and ‘Picual’, with contrasting fruit size and shape as well as fruit ripening duration. Hormonal profiling revealed that olive fruit growth involves a lowering of auxin (IAA), cytokinin (CKs), and jasmonic acid (JA) levels as well as a rise in salicylic acid (SA) levels from the endocarp lignification to the onset of fruit ripening in both cultivars. During olive fruit ripening, both abscisic acid (ABA) and anthocyanin levels rose, while JA levels fell, and SA levels showed no significant changes in either cultivar. By contrast, differential accumulation patterns of gibberellins (GAs) were found between the two cultivars during olive fruit growth and ripening. GA1 was not detected at either stage of fruit development in ‘Arbequina’, revealing a specific association between the GA1 and ‘Picual’, the cultivar with large sized, elongated, and fast-ripening fruit. Moreover, ABA may play a central role in regulating olive fruit ripening through transcriptional regulation of key ABA metabolism genes, whereas the IAA, CK, and GA levels and/or responsiveness differ between olive cultivars during olive fruit ripening. Taken together, the results indicate that the relative absence or presence of endogenous GA1 is associated with differences in fruit morphology and size as well as in the ripening duration in olives. Such detailed knowledge may be of help to design new strategies for effective manipulation of olive fruit size as well as ripening duration.
... Finally, GA12 is transformed to bioactive GA4 through the activities of the GA 20-oxidase (GA20ox) and GA 3-oxidase (GA3ox) in the cytoplasm [62]. In this pathway, GA3 encodes for ent-kaurene oxidase [63] that converts GA12 within the plastids, while the respective enzymes encoded by GA20ox1 and GA3ox1 convert bioactive GA4 in the cytoplasm, which is fundamental for GA biosynthesis [64,65]. Our qRT-PCR results showed that relative gene expression under drought conditions was upregulated for GmGA3 at 6 h after treatment, and it could lead to a subsequent marked accumulation of GA content in KJ40E-dipped seeds. ...
Soybean ( Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is important to the global food industry; however, its productivity is affected by abiotic stresses such as osmosis, flooding, heat, and cold. Here, we evaluated the bioactive extracts of two biostimulant bacterial strains, Bacillus butanolivorans KJ40 and B . siamensis H30-3, for their ability to convey tolerance to osmotic stress in soybean seeds during germination. Soybean seeds were dip-treated in extracts of KJ40 (KJ40E) or H30-3 (H30-3E) and incubated with either 0% or 20% polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG), simulating drought-induced osmotic stress. We measured malondialdehyde content as a marker for lipid peroxidation, as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes, including catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase, together with changes in sugars content. We also monitored the expression of genes involved in the gibberellic acid (GA)-biosynthesis pathway, and abscisic acid (ABA) signaling. Following osmotic stress in the extract-treated seeds, malondialdehyde content decreased, while antioxidant enzyme activity increased. Similarly, the expression of GA-synthesis genes, including GmGA2ox1 and GmGA3 were upregulated in KJ40E-dipped seeds at 12 or 6 h after treatment, respectively. The ABA signaling genes GmABI4 and GmDREB1 were upregulated in H30-3E- and KJ40E-treated seeds at 0 and 12 h after treatment under osmotic stress; however, GmABI5 , GmABI4 , and GmDREB1 levels were also elevated in the dip-treated seeds in baseline conditions. The GA/ABA ratio increased only in KJ40E-treated seeds undergoing osmotic stress, while glucose content significantly decreased in H30-3E-treated seeds at 24 h after treatment. Collectively, our findings indicated that dip-treatment of soybean seeds in KJ40E and H30-3E can enhance the seeds’ resistance to osmotic stress during germination, and ameliorate cellular damage caused by secondary oxidative stress. This seed treatment can be used agriculturally to promote germination under drought stress and lead to increase crop yield and quality.
... 35,36 The changes in fruit ripening and shape are usually accomplished through altered cell division or cell expansion patterns and wax deposition. 37,38 Cell wall modifying proteins, including xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase and polygalacturonase, contribute to the softening of fruits. 39,40 The cytoskeletal and microtubule proteins are essential for cell division, cell expansion, and cell morphogenesis during fruit ripening. ...
To gain a comprehensive understanding of non-histone methylation during berry ripening in grape (Vitis vinifera L.), the methylation of non-histone lysine residues was studied using a 4D label-free quantitative proteomics approach. In total, 822 methylation sites in 416 methylated proteins were identified, with xxExxx_K_xxxxxx as the conserved motif. Functional annotation of non-histone proteins with methylated lysine residues indicated that these proteins were mostly associated with "ripening and senescence", "energy metabolism", "oxidation-reduction process", and "stimulus response". Most of the genes encoding proteins subjected to methylation during grape berry ripening showed a significant increase in expression during maturation at least at one developmental stage. The correlation of methylated proteins with QTLs, SNPs, and selective regions associated with fruit quality and development was also investigated. This study reports the first proteomic analysis of non-histone lysine methylation in grape berry and indicates that non-histone methylation plays an important role in grape berry ripening.
