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Effect plots for analyze factorial design: (a) Pareto chart for Young’s modulus and (b) Pareto chart for yield strength. Half normal probability plot of the effects for (c) Young modulus and (d) yield strength
Source publication
The fused filament fabrication (FFF) is one of the most common forms of 3D printing with many hobbyists and as well as professional printers adopting this technology. With numerous printing parameters available for each print, having the knowledge to optimize the printing process to obtain a custom mechanical properties is clearly advantageous. Thi...
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Citations
... From the literature review, it was revealed that flexural properties are rarely studied, in comparison to the high number of studies regarding tensile properties of thermoplastic polymers fabricated via the FFF process. The process parameters that were selected include the LH, ID, and PS, all of which were considered to be important, based on reliable literature sources [49,50], as well as IP which is also expected to have a significant influence on the flexural properties of the printed specimens. It is noteworthy that nozzle and bed temperatures were excluded as variables in the DOE due to specific considerations. ...
... It is noteworthy that nozzle and bed temperatures were excluded as variables in the DOE due to specific considerations. First, a review of existing literature indicates that for standard and engineering-grade plastics, the influence of printing temperature on mechanical properties is relatively minor [49,50]. This suggests that temperature variation may not significantly affect the obtained results. ...
Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, such as fused filament fabrication (FFF), play nowadays an important role for processing polymeric materials, owing to their considerable advantages such as its cost-effectiveness and wide range of usable materials. In particular, techniques such as FFF involve multiple parameters that critically influence printing quality, including the choice of filament material. Although, existing literature extensively investigates how these parameters affect print quality and overall process efficiency, the relative influence of specimen weight apart from process parameters is rarely discussed. In this study, we focus on the flexural properties of PETG processed via FFF. Using an orthogonal Taguchi design of experiment, we analyzed the influence of four control factors: infill density, infill pattern, layer height, and printing speed. Flexural properties were evaluated based on the flexural modulus of elasticity, flexural yield strength, and flexural absorbed energy, both in absolute terms and normalized to weight. Following the Taguchi analysis, grey relational analysis (GRA) was used to identify the optimal set of parameters for both absolute and reduced values. This study yields valuable insights into each parameter impact, the efficient fabrication capabilities, while it also provides guidelines for future research. By employing a combination of Taguchi DOE and GRA, the obtained flexural properties of the printed parts were significantly improved and optimized based on different criteria, taking into account the weight of specimens and printing time, and finally, it was deduced that the consideration of reduced values can reveal promising alternative strategies for obtaining optimized parts.
... Rights reserved. their surroundings, which can impair the quality of printed specimens [43]. Filaments were stored in plastic desiccators containing silica gel in order to avoid moisture adsorption prior to their use. ...
The main goal of this research was to investigate the influence of additive manufacturing (AM) printing parameters on the mechanical properties and surface roughness of specimens fabricated using recycled polylactic acid (rPLA). In order to achieve this goal, significant printing parameters such as layer thickness, infill density, and nozzle temperature were selected based on prior research. A three-level L9 orthogonal array, based on the Taguchi method, was used in the experimental design. The mechanical properties of virgin PLA and recycled PLA printed specimens were examined and compared. To facilitate the analysis of variance (ANOVA) examination, the response data for mechanical and surface roughness parameters were transformed to signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios. The inspected responses under consideration were the surface roughness, shore D hardness, tensile strength, flexural strength, and impact strength. The main findings suggest that careful consideration of the layer height is crucial for achieving optimum mechanical properties in the recycled PLA specimens. Furthermore, the nozzle temperature also played an important factor that affected the mechanical and surface roughness properties of the 3D printed PLA specimens. Microscopic investigation demonstrated that the number and size of voids increased significantly when the layer thickness and temperature were low, namely, 0.1 mm and 195 ℃, respectively. Finally, the optimal combination of printing parameters for each performance characteristic was determined. Following this, a confirmation test was performed using the preferred combination of parameters, which indicated a strong correlation with the outcomes predicted statistically. The results obtained from this study revealed that recycled PLA exhibited mechanical properties comparable to that of virgin PLA under certain conditions. In summary, the results of this study will serve as a valuable dataset in the field of additive manufacturing, providing valuable insights for other researchers working with recycled PLA material.
... Additionally, concerns related to layer adhesion during the printing process may compromise the overall dimensional stability of the printed object (Abeykoon et al., 2020). Furthermore, PLA absorbs moisture easily, which degrades the quality of its prints and its dimensional (Auffray et al., 2022). ...
Arundo donax L. is investigated in this study as a suitable reinforcing agent for PLA/PP waste blend 3D printing filament. To improve the compatibility of the fibre and polymer, the Arundo fibre was chemically modified using alkali and silane treatment. Untreated and treated fibres were extruded with Polymer blends before being 3D printed. Effect of chemical treatment on thermal, mechanical, and morphological properties of the composites was investigated. The tensile, Izod impact, and water absorption of the 3D printed specimens were also tested. The Alkali treated (ALK) and combination of alkali and silane treatment (SLN) composites displayed good results. Tensile strength and modulus of the materials increased, as well as their maintained stability in the Izod impact test, demonstrating that the incorporation of ArF did not result in a loss in performance. SEM examination supported these findings by confirming the creation of beneficial interfacial contacts between the matrix and fibre components, as demonstrated by the lack of void between the matrix and the fibre surface. Furthermore, the alkali treatment of the ArF resulted in a considerable reduction in water absorption inside the biocomposite, with a 64% reduction seen in ALK composite comparison to the untreated composite (Un). After the 43-day assessment period.
... Different design of experiment (DOE) approaches are used in the research community to evaluate individual and interactive effects of numerous parameters that can influence experimental results and find the future direction. These DOE approaches are used for nano-microadsorption [45], recycling of PP materials [46], tensile properties of samples [47], sound analysis [48], and energy and waste research area [49]. In recent research efforts, researchers have combined laserbased additive manufacturing to enhance mechanical properties, offering new avenues for composite material improvement [50,51]. ...
In recent years, materials science and engineering have increasingly focused on advanced composite powders. This study examines the preparation of micro–micro Ti-6Al-4V composite powders by electrostatic adsorption (EA). The necessity of this research lies in the demand for optimizing the Ti-6Al-4V composite powder formation process window for high-performance applications across industries. Achieving optimal EA parameters is crucial for enhancing the quality and efficiency of the powder formation process. In this study, the effect of stirring duration and guest particle loading on the EA process is investigated. The stirring time (1 to 25 min) and guest particle loading (10 to 60%) of the solution are varied to determine the ideal conditions for high adsorption efficiency. It was found that shorter stirring durations (1 min) and a lower guest particle load (10%) have a significant effect on adsorption efficiency. The results were analyzed using the DOE approach to guide future optimization of the process window. The study fills a research gap by utilizing the DOE approach to investigate stirring duration and guest particle loading, providing insights for optimizing the EA process for micro–micro Ti-6Al-4V composite powder. This approach has the potential to enhance cost-effective, durable composite powder production with broad applications in industries like aerospace and automotive. While our research currently focuses on stirring duration and guest particle loading, the application of the DOE approach lays the groundwork for future investigations into additional EA process parameters, such as pH value, particle size, and temperature to expand our understanding of efficient composite powder formation.
... Young's modulus and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) can be mentioned among the most studied mechanical properties in 3D printed samples, since these properties are necessary to model the mechanical behavior and response of parts under conditions of work [17][18][19]. Knowing the mechanical properties of the part based on its filling percentage is of great importance for possible applications. However, the exact mechanical property is not easy to determine, and, in some cases, the mechanical behavior has been estimated from numerical simulations [20]. ...
Additive manufacturing makes it possible to fabricate samples with partial internal infill. This type of sample has a different Young’s modulus than a completely filled sample. In this work, the dependence of the apparent Young’s modulus of samples manufactured by 3D printing on the infill percentage has been experimentally determined, for a given pattern and using a non-destructive technique. Young’s modulus was assumed as an apparent modulus and values were found between 3.39 GPa for the sample with 100% infill and 1.32 GPa for the sample with 20% infill. In particular, a non-linear variation of the apparent Young’s modulus was observed. The specific Young’s modulus presents a minimum for an intermediate infill percentage. The use of a model of composite materials was proposed, as a first approach to determine the apparent Young’s modulus of the parts. The mixture law, the Halpin-Tsai equation generalized by Kerner, a model of foams and the Mori Tanaka method were applied to the dependence of the apparent Young’s modulus on the infill percentage, giving all, except the mixture law, acceptable results. The advantage of applying each model was discussed. This type of analysis would allow a fast semi-empirical approach of the apparent Young’s modulus in partially filled samples with a grid pattern.
... Fused filament fabrication (FFF) [1,2] is a manufacturing process to build physical models by additive manufacturing (AM), which is one of the well-known AM technologies [3,4]. The heated nozzle is moved under a computer's numerical control. ...
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is an additive manufacturing process that uses a continuous filament of a thermoplastic material. The FFF is able to fabricate physical models with sophisticated geometries. Unfortunately, the mechanical property of the fabricated physical models is limited. Therefore, this drawback will limit the application of the fabricated physical models made by FFF. To improve this drawback, this work demonstrates a simple method to increase the tensile strength of printed parts. This method combines filament preheating and ultraviolet (UV) resin reinforcement methods. The tensile strength of the printed tensile test piece with a filling density of 100% was soaked in UV resin and then cured with a wavelength of 405 nm for 30 min. The tensile strength was increased from 35.08 to 37.5 MPa with an improvement rate of about 6.9%. The tensile strength was increased from 35.08 to 43.97 MPa when the filling density was 100% and the filament was preheated at 50 °C with an improvement rate of about 25.34%. Combining filament preheating and UV resin reinforcement methods, the tensile strength was increased from 35.08 to 46.75 MPa. The improvement rate in tensile strength is up to 33.26%. The failure mechanism of the tensile test sample made by combining UV resin reinforcement and filament preheating method is also investigated.
... The angle in the loading direction can gain the utmost strength. The sharp slope of the line of these two parameters shows that the change in the parameters of the infill density and the raster angle creates substantial changes in the strength of the printed sample 47 . Based on the results obtained from Fig. 13a and b, it can be inferred that the highest strength is achieved by employing a raster angle of 0°, an infill density of 100%, a nozzle diameter of 0.6 mm, and a raster thickness of 0.3 mm. ...
Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a widely used additive manufacturing (AM) method that offers great flexibility in fabricating complex geometries without requiring expensive equipment. However, compared to other manufacturing methods, FDM-produced parts generally exhibit lower strength and fatigue life. To overcome this limitation, researchers have explored the use of fibers and reinforcements to enhance the mechanical properties of FDM parts. Nevertheless, the performance of FDM-produced parts can be significantly affected by various manufacturing parameters, including infill density, which is a key factor in balancing time and cost. In this study, the tensile strength and fatigue life of carbon fiber-reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) composites produced by FDM were investigated by varying the infill density (50 and 75%) and raster angle (0°, 45°, and 90°). The effects of 100% filling density, raster width, and nozzle diameter on mechanical properties were also examined. The experimental results demonstrated that increasing the infill density and decreasing the raster angle can enhance the tensile strength, although the fatigue behavior was found to be more complex and dependent on the infill density. The optimal parameters for producing FDM parts with improved mechanical properties were identified based on the analysis of the tensile strength and fatigue life data. This research has yielded significant findings concerning the diverse fatigue behavior associated with the raster angle at different infill densities. Specifically, noteworthy observations reveal that a raster angle of 45 degrees at 50% infill density, and a raster angle of 0 degrees at 75% infill density, exhibited the most prolonged fatigue life. This outcome can be ascribed to the specific loading conditions and the inherent strength of the sediment layer at the critical point of stress concentration.
... The traditional approach in DoE includes performing screening experiments to determine significant main effects, followed by full factorial or response surface methodology experiments to optimize considered responses. Auffray et al. [21] have used the Taguchi DoE approach to study the influence of infill pattern, layer height, infill density, printing velocity, raster orientation, outline overlap, extruder temperature, and the interactions of infill pattern + layer height, infill pattern + infill density, and layer height + infill density on PLA part's tensile Young's modulus and yield strength. The study has shown that the infill density, infill pattern, printing velocity, and printing orientation significantly affect the tensile properties of PLA Polymers 2023, 15, 4169 3 of 17 ...
The material extrusion fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique has become a widely used technique that enables the production of complex parts for various applications. To overcome limitations of PLA material such as low impact toughness, commercially available materials such as UltiMaker Tough PLA were produced to improve the parent PLA material that can be widely applied in many engineering applications. In this study, 3D-printed parts (test specimens) considering six different printing parameters (i.e., layer height, wall thickness, infill density, build plate temperature, printing speed, and printing temperature) are experimentally investigated to understand their impact on the mechanical properties of Tough PLA material. Three different standardized tests of tensile, flexural, and compressive properties were conducted to determine the maximum force and Young’s modulus. These six properties were used as responses in a design of experiment, definitive screening design (DSD), to build six regression models. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is performed to evaluate the effects of each of the six printing parameters on Tough PLA mechanical properties. It is shown that all regression models are statistically significant (p<0.05) with high values of adjusted and predicted R2. Conducted confirmation tests resulted in low relative errors between experimental and predicted data, indicating that the developed models are adequately accurate and reliable for the prediction of tensile, flexural, and compressive properties of Tough PLA material.
... The study concluded that the brittleness may be due to the relatively higher infill density which led to the high bonding adhesion of the printed layers, whereas the infill size and thickness influence the solid substrate. IJIEOM Auffray et al. (2022) examined the mechanical properties of PLA specimens' manufactured using FFF technology. The study noted that the infill density, infill pattern, printing velocity and printing orientation were the most critical parameters, whereas layer thickness, temperature and outline overlap had not much impact on Young's modulus and sample yield strength. ...
Purpose
This paper presents an experimental investigation in establishing the relationship between FDM process parameters and tensile strength of polycarbonate (PC) samples using the I-Optimal design.
Design/methodology/approach
I-optimal design methodology is used to plan the experiments by means of Minitab-17.1 software. Samples are manufactured using Stratsys FDM 400mc and tested as per ISO standards. Additionally, an artificial neural network model was developed and compared to the regression model in order to select an appropriate model for optimisation. Finally, the genetic algorithm (GA) solver is executed for improvement of tensile strength of FDM built PC components.
Findings
This study demonstrates that the selected process parameters (raster angle, raster to raster air gap, build orientation about Y axis and the number of contours) had significant effect on tensile strength with raster angle being the most influential factor. Increasing the build orientation about Y axis produced specimens with compact structures that resulted in improved fracture resistance.
Research limitations/implications
The fitted regression model has a p -value less than 0.05 which suggests that the model terms significantly represent the tensile strength of PC samples. Further, from the normal probability plot it was found that the residuals follow a straight line, thus the developed model provides adequate predictions. Furthermore, from the validation runs, a close agreement between the predicted and actual values was seen along the reference line which further supports satisfactory model predictions.
Practical implications
This study successfully investigated the effects of the selected process parameters - raster angle, raster to raster air gap, build orientation about Y axis and the number of contours - on tensile strength of PC samples utilising the I-optimal design and ANOVA. In addition, for prediction of the part strength, regression and ANN models were developed. The selected ANN model was optimised using the GA-solver for determination of optimal parameter settings.
Originality/value
The proposed ANN-GA approach is more appropriate to establish the non-linear relationship between the selected process parameters and tensile strength. Further, the proposed ANN-GA methodology can assist in manufacture of various industrial products with Nylon, polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) and PET as new 3DP materials.
... Both raster angle and orientation were influential parameters. Seven processing variables, namely filling style, layer height, filling density, feed rate, raster orientation, extrusion temperature, and outline contour overlap, were examined by Auffray et al. 9 for their interactions and effects on the elastic mechanical characteristics of PLA specimens produced by the FFF process. According to the experimental findings, filling density, feed rate, filling pattern, and print orientation influenced the final product the most. ...
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is a high‐tech additive manufacturing technique with a wide range of applications, as it allows the production of functional parts with complex geometries in a reasonable time. Mechanical characteristics and dimensional accuracy must be estimated for the functional testing of products created with different polymeric materials. The mechanical characteristics and dimensional quality of manufactured parts are determined by several process variables. The purpose of this research is to determine the effect of four significant process variables (layer thickness, filament extrusion temperature, extrusion width, and printing speed) on the mechanical characteristics (tensile, three‐point bending, compression, Izod, and shear strengths) of FFF‐printed polycarbonate parts. Statistical models were created using the central composite rotatable design of the response surface methodology to demonstrate the relationship between the mechanical properties and the process factors. The accuracy of the developed models was assessed using ANOVA. TOPSIS analysis has been used to determine the optimal process conditions for achieving the optimum mechanical quality characteristics of FFF‐printed polycarbonate parts. The fractured and deformed surfaces of the test samples were examined using scanning electron microscopy.
Highlights
Effect of process variables on mechanical properties of FFF‐printed PC parts was analyzed.
Quadratic models based on the CCRD design of RSM methodology have been developed.
The models correlate the mechanical characteristics to the process variables.
ANOVA was used to determine the developed model's adequacy.
TOPSIS was used to optimize the process conditions.
