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A study of the duration of strong ground motion using accelerometric data of subduction and normal faulting Mexican earthquakes is presented. Duration is obtained based on the time between 2.5 and 97.5 percent of the Arias intensity. An expression to predict this duration in terms of the magnitude, distance to the rupture area and site period is pr...
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... are also located either over rock or lakebed zone sites with dominant periods as large as 5.2 seconds. Figure 1 shows the location of some of these earthquakes together with their magnitude and date. Apart from the May 22, 1994 event that occurred at a depth of 45 km, all earthquakes are superficial with depths between 12 and 27 km. ...
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... The strong motion duration of seismic excitation considering as the time interval during which most of the total intensity is released, is another vital parameter. Two definitions of strong motion duration, Trifunac and Brady (SMD TB ) [81] and Reinoso, Ordaz, and Guerrero (SMD ROG ) [82], are based on the Arias intensity's time evolution. The bracketed duration after Bolt (SMD Bolt ) [83], which is calculated based on the initial and final instances when the acceleration exceeds 5% of g, is also utilized. ...
Recently developed Machine Learning (ML) interpretability techniques have the potential to explain how predictors influence the dependent variable in high-dimensional and non-linear problems. This study investigates the application of the above methods to damage prediction during a sequence of earthquakes, emphasizing the use of techniques such as SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP), Partial Dependence Plots (PDPs), Local Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations (LIME), Accumulated Local Effects (ALE), permutation and impurity-based techniques. Following previous investigations that examine the interdependence between predictors and the cumulative damage caused by a seismic sequence using classic statistical methods, the present study deploy ML interpretation techniques to deal with this multi-parametric and complex problem. The research explores the cumulative damage during seismic sequences, aiming to identify critical predictors and assess their influence on the cumulative damage. Moreover, the predictors contribution with respect to the range of final damage is evaluated. Non-linear time history analyses are applied to extract the seismic response of an eight-story Reinforced Concrete (RC) frame. The regression problem’s input variables are divided into two distinct physical classes: pre-existing damage from the initial seismic event and seismic parameters representing the intensity of the subsequent earthquake, expressed by the Park and Ang damage index (DIPA
) and Intensity Measures (IMs), respectively. In addition to the interpretability analysis, the study offers also a comprehensive review of ML methods, hyperparameter tuning, and ML method comparisons. A LightGBM model emerges as the most efficient, among 15 different ML methods examined. Among the 17 examined predictors, the initial damage, caused by the first shock, and the IMs of the subsequent shock—IFVF
and SIH
—emerged as the most important ones. The novel results of this study provide useful insights in seismic design and assessment taking into account the structural performance under multiple moderate to strong earthquake events.
... The influence of the duration effect on structural response is still controversial (Du and Wang 2017); most studies have reported that the duration has a negligible effect on the peak structural responses (e.g., Rahnama and Manuel 1996;Cosenza et al. 2004;Iervolino et al. 2006), but it is generally accepted that there is a positive correlation between the duration and cumulative damage measures (e.g., Meskouris 1983;Uang and Bertero 1990;Reinoso et al. 2000;Bommer et al. 2004), as described by Hancock and Bommer (2006). In recent years, with the development of performance-based seismic design theory, researchers have paid increasing attention to the influence of ground-motion duration on the seismic capacity of structures. ...
To date, multiple ground-motion prediction equations (GMPEs) for the significant duration (DS) of shallow crustal earthquakes have been proposed, but there are few GMPEs for subduction intraslab and interface earthquakes in Japan, and corresponding spatial correlation models have not been published. To address this issue, we first select ground-motion records with moment magnitude 4 ≤ Mw ≤ 9, rupture distance Rrup ≤ 300 km, and peak ground acceleration ≥ 10 gal based on the K-NET and KiK-net databases. Then, for intraslab and interface earthquakes in the subduction zone, based on previous works, the traditional source duration term is simplified, a depth term is added, and new GMPEs for DS of earthquakes in the subduction zone in Japan are developed. The rationality and reliability of the prediction model proposed in this study are verified by residual analysis and comparison with the previous models. Finally, according to the intra-event residuals, a spatial correlation model of DS is established by using a semivariogram and exponential model. The results show that DS of subduction interface earthquakes is larger than that of subduction intraslab earthquakes on the whole, but the spatial correlation coefficient of subduction interface earthquakes decreases more slowly with increasing separation distance than that of subduction intraslab earthquakes, and the significant duration of the spatial correlation is related to site effects and path effects. The results provide a reference for the development of GMPEs based on nonergodic assumptions, regional seismic hazard analysis and loss assessment.
... Various definitions have been given in the past for the strong motion duration of a seismic excitation in order to identify the time interval of the signal in which the vast amount of its total intensity is released. In this work, the strong motion durations defined by Trifunac and Brady (SMD TB ) [45] and by Reinoso, Ordaz and Guerrero (SMD ROG ) [46] are assumed. Both of these are based on the time evolution of Arias intensity according to the Husid diagram [47]. ...
Advanced machine learning algorithms have the potential to be successfully applied to many areas of system modelling. In the present study, the capability of ten machine learning algorithms to predict the structural damage of an 8-storey reinforced concrete frame building subjected to single and successive ground motions is examined. From this point of view, the initial damage state of the structural system, as well as 16 well-known ground motion intensity measures, are adopted as the features of the machine-learning algorithms that aim to predict the structural damage after each seismic event. The structural analyses are performed considering both real and artificial ground motion sequences, while the structural damage is expressed in terms of two overall damage indices. The comparative study results in the most efficient damage index, as well as the most promising machine learning algorithm in predicting the structural response of a reinforced concrete building under single or multiple seismic events. Finally, the configured methodology is deployed in a user-friendly web application.
... Various definitions have been given in the past for the strong motion duration of a seismic excitation, in order to identify the time interval of the signal in which the vast amount of its total intensity is released. In this work, the strong motion durations defined by Trifunac and Brady (SMD T B ) [32], and by Reinoso, Ordaz and Guerrero (SMD ROG ) [33] are assumed. Both of these are based on the time evolution of Arias Intensity according to Husid Diagram. ...
Advanced machine learning algorithms, such as neural networks, have the potential to be successfully applied to many areas of system modelling. Several studies have been already conducted on forecasting structural damage due to individual earthquakes, ignoring the influence of seismic sequences, using neural networks. In the present study, an ensemble neural network approach is applied to predict the final structural damage of an 8-storey reinforced concrete frame under real and artificial ground motion sequences. Successive earthquakes consisted of two seismic events are utilised. We considered 16 well-known ground motion intensity measures and the structural damage that occurred by the first earthquake as the features of the machine-learning problem, while the final structural damage was the target. After the first seismic events and after the seismic sequences, both actual values of damage indices are calculated through nonlinear time history analysis. The machine-learning model is trained using the dataset generated from artificial sequences. Finally, the predictive capacity of the fitted neural network is accessed using the natural seismic sequences as a test set.
... The SA0.3 and SA1.0 reflect the natural frequencies of low-rise buildings as approximately 3 storeys and high-rise building as approximately 10 storeys, respectively. The ground shaking duration is a critical factor because it reflects seismic hazards particularly in building performance, landslide triggering and liquefaction (Trifunac and Novikova 1995;Reinoso and Guerrero 2000;Hancock and Bommer 2005;Bommer et al. 2006;Kempton and Stewart 2006). ...
On 6 February 2016(UTC 19:57), the Meinong earthquake with Richter magnitude (ML) 6.6 struck southern Taiwan and caused hundreds of damaged buildings and resulted in 117 casualties. To realize which ground motion parameter is the most representative index corresponding to the disaster (building damage) of the Meinong earthquake, we investigated the relationship between the damaged buildings and the ground motion in the forms of peak ground acceleration (PGA), peak ground velocity (PGV), pseudo-spectral acceleration (SA) at 0.3 sec (SA0.3), 1.0 sec (SA1.0), and shaking duration. The PGV and the SA1.0 present better correlation with consequent damage. And, thus, the Intensity converted from PGV show better correlation to the damage than from PGA. To clarify the seismic source contributing to the hazard by the Meinong earthquake, we disaggregated the TEM PSHA2015 hazard contribution to the damage region of Meinong eartqhuake (Southern Taiwan) from different seismic source typologies. The hazard contributed by the Meinong earthquake are 16%, 26% and 23% for PGA, SA0.3 and SA1.0, respectively; to the predicted seismic hazard of area source are 38%, 61% and 75% for PGA, SA0.3 and SA1.0, respectively, for the PSHA with return period of 475 years. The result indicates that the 2016 Meinong earthquake did diminish partially the seismic hazard potential in southern Taiwan. However, more than about 80% of the seismic hazard potential, especially the fault sources, were not yet released. These values suggest that the seismic hazard potential in the southern Taiwan remains high regardless the occurrence of the 2016 Meinong earthquake.
... A study by Salmon [1] demonstrated that earthquake duration increases with increasing earthquake magnitude and increasing distance from the recording site to the zone of energy release of the causative earthquake and also earthquake duration is greater at soil sites than at rock sites. Majority of studies on earthquake duration have been conducted in relation to response of foundation materials and structures [8][9][10][11][12][13]. However, this study aims at establishing the relationship between earthquake duration and other seismic parameters: magnitude, peak ground acceleration (PGA), focal depth and fault length in relation to landslides generated during and/ after an earthquake. ...
... There are a number of definitions of strong motion duration which have been developed by many investigators [1,3,[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. The authors elaborated that each of the definitions that have been developed are based on the fact that the damage potential of an earthquake is a function of the energy of the earthquake, and that the majority of the total energy associated with any earthquake is contained in portions of the earthquake time history which is much shorter in time than the total duration. ...
Earthquake duration is a complex natural phenomenon associated with the sudden energy release induced by fault rupture. The shaking during an earthquake is a result of the primary, secondary and surface waves. This study is aimed at establishing the relationship between earthquake duration and other seismic parameters: magnitude, peak ground acceleration, focal distance, fault length in relation to landslides generated by the major earthquakes. To achieve this objective, we made an intensive review of published data on major earthquakes (Mw ≥ 6.6) that generated landslides between 1998 and 2015 in the world. The results reveal that magnitude, focal length and focal depth times fault length are strong determinants of earthquake duration. However, it is noted that peak ground acceleration (PGA) and focal depth do not necessarily determine the duration of earthquake shaking. It is also observed that duration of an earthquake is moderately correlated to area affected by earthquake induced landslides. Additionally, much as the number of landslides produced during and/or after an earthquake does not necessarily augment with increasing duration majority of the investigated major earthquakes that produced great damage, with respect to landslides, were noticed to have lasted for not more than 60 seconds.
... Somerville et al. (1997) also found that the rupture directivity effect can influence the strong shaking duration; they indicated that waves in the backward directivity region result in signals of extended duration. Additionally, many studies have suggested that structural components are expected to exhibit sensitivity to ground shaking duration (Reinoso and Guerrero 2000;Hancock and Bommer 2004;Bommer et al. 2004;Hancock and Bommer 2006). In the present paper, we did not include the aforementioned factors in our empirical equation. ...
The duration of strong shaking is particularly important for assessing building performance, potential landslides and liquefaction hazards. The results of this investigation can potentially help reduce related fatalities and economic losses. In this study, we analyzed the acceleration seismograms of the Taiwan strong motion network to characterize the strong shaking duration associated with earthquake sources, propagation paths and site effects. This study proposes a new definition for the strong shaking duration called “effective shaking duration” (ESD), which considers the amplitude and radiation energy decays. We first consider the window of a time series during which the amplitude is ≥0.01 g, and we then defined the ESD as the length of the interval of the dissipated energy within 5–95 % of the total energy during this time frame. We calculated the strong shaking duration for 495 inter-plate events with magnitudes of M
L > 5.0 and focal depths
... There are many studies reporting that link structural damage to parameters related either directly or indirectly to strong motion duration. However, the relevance of strong motion duration to structural response remains an open question, with some research indicating no effect [14,15] and other research indicating a possible correlation [16,17]. At least part of the reason that researches have differing conclusions on the importance of strong motion duration is the use of different duration definitions, structural models and damage metrics. ...
... A significant effort has been placed, over the last decades, on the analysis of the effects of shallow crustal earthquake motions on the seismic response of structures [1][2][3][4][5]. Research on the effects of shallow crustal motions has made its way into seismic design code provisions, and since crustal earthquakes are typically short in duration, the effect of duration of the ground motion has not been identified as an important predictor of damage. ...
Subduction zone earthquake motions present a significant hazard in Northern California and the Pacific Northwest, as well as other parts of the world. Compared to shallow crustal earthquake motions, subduction zone earthquake motions present longer duration and lower frequency content. As a consequence, the response of structures subjected to these two types of ground motions can be expected to be considerably different. However, current design codes were calibrated considering only crustal motions, and the increased vulnerability of existing and new structures to subduction zone earthquakes is largely unknown. In the present paper, the performance of a steel moment resisting frame building structure is studied under subduction zone earthquake motions and shallow crustal earthquake motions. The 9-story building is part of a set of buildings designed and analyzed under the SAC steel building project. The building is located in Seattle, WA, and therefore susceptible to both shallow crustal and subduction zone type motions. A nonlinear finite element model is developed in the Open System for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (OpenSees) using a centerline two-dimensional model. P-D effects are accounted for using a leaning column. Energy-based strength deterioration is considered in the modeling of beam hinges. The seismic performance of the structure is evaluated under incremental dynamic analyses. For the seismic demands caused by the two different types of earthquake motions, the results show: (1) negligible differences are obtained for peak interstory drift ratio, (2) significant differences are obtained for residual drifts, hysteretic energy dissipated, and number of inelastic excursions observed at the component level.
... (2. 16) In calculation of phase difference we need to unfold it in the range of total 2π (in radian) or 360º (in degree) system, (0) -(2π) or (-π) -(π) and (0) -(360º) or (-180º) -(180º). ...
... Reinoso [16] and suggested relationship of duration with magnitude, epicentral distance and rupture area, Duration of earthquake ground motion measure as power spectra between 2.5% and 97.5% taking total 95% energy release on earthquake. They conclude that duration affected response and mainly degradation after analyzing thirteen stories building structural analysis. ...
... 16 Relationship of duration with scaling ...
Structural response due to long duration of earthquake is still not confirmed as it amplifies more or no any significant effects, after Great East Japan Earthquake, M9.0, 2011; research on effects of long duration ground motion on structural behavior increased. This study concentrates on finding the relationship of duration with different parameters of observed ground motion, simulation of long duration ground motion compatible with design response spectra in one part. One thousand five hundred forty nine ground motions observed in Japanese archipelago, recorded by NIED were analyzed. Most of the ground motions with single peak are taken into consideration. Duration of ground motion is taken as time between power intensity of 5% and 95% in all calculations. Relationship of duration with group time delay envelop, which is almost equivalent to envelop of ground motion, magnitude, epicentral distance etc. are shown in graphical and regression form. Group delay time envelop properties seems follow Cauchy distribution, where normal distribution is also in acceptable trend. Simulation of design ground motion compatible to given design response spectra were performed for observed earthquakes. Duration of simulated design ground motion then changed by varying the scaling parameter on group delay time envelop, where random phase was withdrawn, following the Cauchy distribution used as constant in every iteration of spectral fitting. Long duration earthquake design ground motion was simulated. Simulated duration of earthquake ground motion with same location and scaling parameters gives better relationship than that observed ground motion duration had with same. Simulated long duration earthquake design ground motion used in study of seismic response analysis of unreinforced brick masonry structures. Historical monuments that had been built in ancient time are mainly constructed with unreinforced brick or stone masonry in mud mortar with timber frames. Combating of such monuments is vital after seismic analysis of structure. Analysis of unreinforced brick masonry structure with a band of concrete in between soil and brick foundation, for three different cases, indicates one good option of strengthening brick masonry structure. Changes in displacements and acceleration at top corners are compared. Modeling and numerical analysis of the structural system is based on the finite element method, considering 3D solid elements.
