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Aromatics originating from the resin-infused infected wood of the Aquilaria and Gyrinops genera have distinct and valued fragrances. Resin formation occurs as a response to internal injury and/or infections in the stems of the agarwood tree. The incenses and perfumes that are produced from agarwood have been valued for centuries and used by many cu...
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... terms agarwood, aloes, and aloeswood are used to refer to the resin-infused wood of species from the four genera: Aquilaria, Gyrinops, Aetoxylon, and Gonystylis. Agarwood, described as aloës in classical literature, has several other names ( Table 2) that are derivations of ancient languages and vary according to the languages/dialects of the traders and places where it originated and was used. The many terms by which agarwood are referred to in religious and historic texts add to the complexity when investigating its history. ...
Citations
... Agarwood, a prized and opulent forest product, holds a position of unparalleled prestige in the realm of plant-based aromatics, commanding unparalleled market demand and value (Kanazawa, 2017;López-Sampson & Page, 2018). Its alluring fragrance arises as a result of a self-defense mechanism observed predominantly in the genera Aquilaria and Gyrinops within the Thymalaeaceae family. ...
Agarwood, a fragrant resin, is produced by certain tree species in the Thymalaeaceae family as a defense mechanism against stress. In commercial plantations, artificial inoculation of the fungal mix is used to induce the said stress, which is crucial for a fruitful harvest. The paste, containing viscous agar to be applied into drilled holes in the tree trunks and branches. Yet, an efficient tool to deliver this paste is lacking. Currently, inadequate industrial caulking guns are being used, proving time-consuming and ergonomically subpar design. To overcome these limitations, a Pneumatic type Agarwood Inoculum Injector was developed. A 6L capacity cast iron chamber was used as the core pneumatic body of the injector. An HCFE 3/8″ non-return valve served as the air inlet. The delivered inoculum passed through a 1mm stainless steel strainer to prevent nozzle blockage. A pressure safety valve, set at 15 bars, released excess pressure. Inoculum compression relied on ambient air, filling up to 5L. A comparison of performance between the new device with the existing caulking gun was done for the inoculum filling rate, time taken to complete a single inoculation point, and the prevented volume of inoculum wastage. With the new device, the average filling volume of inoculum inside the drill holes was increased up to 85.35% and reduced the inoculum wastage from 1.325ml to 0.47ml per drill hole and both improvements were significantly different at the 5% probability level (p<0.05). The results concluded that the developed device is capable of delivering a smooth flow of inoculum paste to the target when the impending pressure thrust range is within 5 to 15 bars. Moreover, within this pressure range, the total volume of 5L was delivered at a fairly consistent rate. The invented new device was found to be highly successful in assisting the critical process of inoculation in the commercial-level agarwood industry.
... The family Thymelaeaceae has been identified in 8 genera, Aquilaria, Wikstroemia, Gonyistylus, Gyrinops, Dalbergia, Enkleia, Excoccaria, and Aetoxylon (Hou, 1960;Triadiati et al., 2016). Aquilaria and Gyrinops are two genera of agarwood trees known as producers of high-quality agarwood commodities (Lopez-Sampson & Page, 2018). ...
Gyrinops versteegii (Thymelaeaceae) is one of the agarwood-producing trees originating from Lombok, there are five provenances, namely Pantai, Madu, Buaya, Soyun, and Beringin. This study aims to compare the morphological structure of pollen in five provenances of G. versteegii in Lombok. The method of sampling and data analyzes were used random sampling and descriptive. Samples were taken from West Lombok: Sidemen Village (Pantai), North Lombok: Menggala Village (Buaya), Gangga Village (Beringin), Central Lombok: Taman Baru Village (Madu), and Soyun from Karang Pule Village, Mataram. The study parameters were pollen diameter and pollen morphology: shape, aperture, and sculpture. The results showed that the size of pollen from Buaya was wider than that from Madu, Beringin and Pantai. Based on the length of the polar axis/equatorial diameter, Buaya Provenance, Beringin and Pantai pollen are round in shape, and Madu Provenance is subprolate in shape. The Buaya, Madu and Beringin provenances have a monocolpate opening type, and the Periporate type for the Pantai provenance.
... Agarwood is a non-timber forest product commodity with a high economic value produced by the thymeleaceae family (Naziz et al., 2019). Indonesia is a country that has a reputation as the world's largest producer of agarwood (López-Sampson & Page, 2018). Two main genera of the thymeleaceae family are distributed in Indonesia: Aquilaria and Gyirnops. ...
Gyrinops versteegii tends to grow naturally in the western region of Lombok Island, while cultivated G. versteegii tends to spread over the eastern region. These two distribution patterns cause different characteristics of this species that can be excellent sources for genetic population study including genetic diversity and population inbreeding. This research aims to conduct a genetic population analysis of G. versteegii from western and eastern agarwood distribution on Lombok Island using the RAPD marker. G versteegii samples were taken from west region (8 o 31ʹ 26ʺ S, 116 o 07ʹ 03ʺ E) and east region (8 o 42ʹ 28ʺ S, 116 o 27ʹ 11ʺ E). RAPD PCR of genomic DNA was conducted using primers: OPA-01, OPA-02, OPA-04, OPA-08, OPA-09, and OPA-18. Genetic population analysis (allele frequencies, heterozygosity, Shannon index, band pattern, and AMOVA) was performed by GenAlEx 6.5. OPA-02 has an ideal discriminative power based on the number of alleles per locus and the Shannon information index. Observed heterozygosity was higher than expected heterozygosity in both the west and east populations of G. versteegii. Based on banding pattern analysis, the eastern population has higher genetic diversity than the western population. AMOVA has shown that molecular variation within the population was higher than molecular variation among the population. It could be concluded that the west and east populations of G. versteegii have a particular genetic variation that could be discriminated by RAPD primer. Despite the genetic diversity, inbreeding between those two populations has occurred constantly. This result could give new insight into the gene flow between two G. versteegi populations, which could support the development of this commodity.
... (Fig. 6A). Contrary to prior beliefs, G. walla, currently restricted to Sri Lanka and the extreme southwest of India [34], shares notable morphological similarities with A. malaccensis. Consequently, the proposition to classify Gyrinops within the genus Aquilaria gains traction, supported by our ndings that G. walla is not an early divergent species but rather belongs to the genus Aquilaria. ...
In the realm of Aquilaria classification and grading, a persistent market uncertainty persists, questioning whether the basis should be geographical distribution or biological origin. In this study, our goal is to shed light on the origin and diversification of the Aquilaria genera. We collected and analyzed a total of 320 specimens belonging to 25 species within the Aquilaria genera. Noteworthy findings include observed leaf similarities among three distinct species— A. yunnanensis , A. sinensis , and A. beccariana . Further results emphasize the effectiveness of matK molecular markers in differentiating Aquilaria species, leveraging 8 stable polymorphic loci. The integration of matK and trnL-trnF not only validates this efficacy but also streamlines the systematic categorization of 34 agarwood products. Delving into the evolutionary status and genetic background of Aquilaria , this study employs molecular clock analyses, revealing four distinct pedigrees: the Chinese pedigree 1 and 2, the Indonesian pedigree, and the Indochina pedigree, aligning with A. sinensis , A. malaccensis , and A. cumingiana , respectively. Notably, we identified A. sinensis and A. malacca as part of the youngest branch of Aquilaria evolution, with A. hirta emerging as the oldest member dating back to 6.78 million years ago. Furthermore, the research challenges previous assumptions by reevaluating G. walla , placing it at 5.75 million years ago, and suggesting its incorporation within the Aquilaria genus rather than considering it as an early divergent species.
... Agarwood is the fragrant resinous heartwood of Southeast Asian trees belong to the Aquilaria malaccensis (Thymelaeaceae) species [1]- [9]. The agarwood essential oil, or regarded as oudh oil, is extracted from agarwood trees. ...
... The agarwood essential oil, or regarded as oudh oil, is extracted from agarwood trees. It is a non-timber forest product that is highly valued for its medicinal, aromatic, ceremonial, and other purposes, which vary according to culture and religion [1]- [6], [8], [10]- [14]. Due to its powerful scent, high resin content, and black colour, agarwood essential oil has risen its popularity among the modern consumers [1], [2], [4]- [6], [8]- [11], [13]- [22]. ...
... It is a non-timber forest product that is highly valued for its medicinal, aromatic, ceremonial, and other purposes, which vary according to culture and religion [1]- [6], [8], [10]- [14]. Due to its powerful scent, high resin content, and black colour, agarwood essential oil has risen its popularity among the modern consumers [1], [2], [4]- [6], [8]- [11], [13]- [22]. Some Asian countries, including Malaysia, Japan, and India, graded agarwood using two different methods. ...
Aquilaria Malaccensis was found to generate agarwood. Because of its multiple benefits, agarwood essential oil, sometimes known as “black gold” is highly regarded universally. There is currently no accepted method for classifying various grades of agarwood essential oil. Due to the fact that the agarwood essential oil is assessed using a human sensory panel, the existing grading method is ineffective. Since different people may have different viewpoints on how to grade agarwood essential oil, it is not practical to apply the method universally. Several innovative methods for determining the classification of agarwood essential oil have been proposed and put into practise as a result of advanced technology. The study has constructed a pattern analysis on different grades of agarwood essential oil using 2D scatter plot. The results successfully indicate the scatter plots are scattered groupedly.
... 3,4 The use of agarwood pro-ducts for incense, perfumes, medicines and ornamentation has been recorded across cultures and centuries. [3][4][5] Common applications are burning wood chips as incense and steam-distillate oils as perfume ingredients. 4,6 In particular, agarwood products were valued at $US 44 billion within the global perfume market. ...
Certain endangered Thymelaeaceous trees are major sources of the fragrant and highly valued resinous agarwood, comprised of hundreds of oxygenated sesquiterpenoids (STPs). Despite growing pressure on natural agarwood sources, the chemical complexity of STPs severely limits their synthetic production. Here, we catalogued the chemical diversity in 58 agarwood samples by two-dimensional gas chromatography mass spectrometry and used synthetic biology to produce subsets of the complex STP mixtures found in agarwood. We improved STP yields in the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by 25-fold through combinatorial engineering to biosynthesise nine macrocyclic STP backbones found in agarwood. A bioprocess following green-chemistry principles was developed that exploits 'milking' of STPs without cell lysis, solvent-solvent STP extraction, solvent-STP nanofiltration, and bulk STP oxy-functionalisation to obtain terpene mixtures like those of agarwood. This green bioprocess allows total solvent recycling and continuous production. Our synthetic biology and green bioprocess approach enables a more sustainable synthesis of complex, fragrant terpenes as an alternative to their exploitation from natural sources.
... The Aquilaria genus includes endangered tree species in Asia that can produce a high-valued non-timber material known as agarwood. Agarwood is widely used as a traditional medicine, perfume, and incense in Asian countries [1]. It is only formed when trunks, branches, or roots SMART database and National Center for Biotechnology Information Conserved Domains (CD)-search tools, the online program ProtParam was used to analyze the molecular characteristics of each predicted protein, including the amino acid length, theoretical isoelectric point (pI), and the molecular weight (S1 Table). ...
The endangered tree species of the Aquilaria genus produce agarwood, a high value material produced only after wounding; however, conservation of Aquilaria seeds is difficult. The B3 transcription factor family has diverse important functions in plant development, especially in seed development, although their functions in other areas, such as stress responses, remain to be revealed. Here germination tests proved that the seeds of A . sinensis were recalcitrant seeds. To provide insights into the B3 superfamily, the members were identified and characterized by bioinformatic approaches and classified by phylogenetic analysis and domain structure. In total, 71 members were identified and classified into four subfamilies. Each subfamily not only had similar domains, but also had conserved motifs in their B3 domains. For the seed-related LAV subfamily, the B3 domain of AsLAV3 was identical to that of AsVALs but lacked a typical zf-CW domain such as VALs. AsLAV5 lacks a typical PHD-L domain present in Arabidopsis VALs. qRT-PCR expression analysis showed that the LEC2 ortholog AsLAV4 was not expressed in seeds. RAVs and REMs induced after wound treatment were also identified. These findings provide insights into the functions of B3 genes and seed recalcitrance of A . sinensis and indicate the role of B3 genes in wound response and agarwood formation.This is the first work to investigate the B3 family in A . sinensis and to provide insights of the molecular mechanism of seed recalcitrance.This will be a valuable guidance for studies of B3 genes in stress responses, secondary metabolite biosynthesis, and seed development.
... En las últimas décadas ha aumentado la demanda y por tanto ha aumentado el precio de todos los productos obtenidos a partir de la madera de agar, lo que los hace más exclusivos. Esta situación ha llevado al agotamiento de las fuentes naturales (LÓPEZ-SAMPSON & PAGE, 2018). Todas las especies de Aquilaria y Gyrinops figuran en el Apéndice II de la Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y Flora silvestres (CITES) y están clasificadas como vulnerables por la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN) (www. ...
... El historiador griego Heródoto recogió que los egipcios usaban la madera de agar (junto con otros compuestos) para embalsamar los cuerpos muertos, por sus propiedades aromáticas y porque impedía la putrefacción (LÓPEZ-SAMPSON & PAGE, 2018). En textos antiguos la madera de agar se suele nombrar como "aloe" (LÓPEZ-SAMPSON & PAGE, 2018). ...
... La madera de agar fue uno de los productos aromáticos más apreciados en el mundo árabe y se menciona en muchos documentos antiguos, como en el libro de alKindī (801-807) en él que se mencionan cinco recetas de perfume que lo tienen como ingrediente (LÓPEZ-SAMPSON & PAGE, 2018). Su uso se menciona en la recopilación de cuentos tradicionales árabes conocido como "Las mil y una noches". ...
ILLANA-ESTEBAN, C. (2023). Agarwood. Bol. Soc. Micol. Madrid 47: 179-191. Agarwood is an important non-timber forest product. Agarwood is the resinous heartwood produced by a number of Aquilaria species. The resin formation is formed for a wound or may be a form of natural biological respond to fungal infection. Is used in religious and cultural activities, in traditional medicine in Asia, and as perfume. Resumen. ILLANA-ESTEBAN, C. (2023). La madera de agar. Bol. Soc. Micol. Madrid 47: 179-191. La madera de agar es un importante producto forestal no maderero. La madera de agar es el xilema resinoso producido por varias especies de Aquilaria. La formación de resina se debe a heridas o puede ser una forma de respuesta biológica natural a una infección fúngica. Se utiliza en actividades religiosas y culturales, en medicina tradicional en Asia, y como perfume.
... Acid or alkali hydrolysis releases a number of soluble phenolic acids associated with lignin or simple glycosides [28]. The activity of phenolics depends on their structural diversity, such as the high antifungal activity of flavonoids, coumestrol, and glyceolin [30]. The present study demonstrated a difference in the ratio of 230/280 nm (representing changes between terpenoids and flavonoids in phenolics) between fresh wood and dry agarwood ( Table 3), indicating that this change is associated with moisture content. ...
(1) Background: Agarwood is an aromatic resin produced by the host tree through an immunological response against biotic and abiotic stress. The aim was, first, to use the fungus Geotrichum candidum to stimulate compound changes in Aquilaria sinensis horizontally (color formation) and vertically (cutting layers) after injection with it. (2) Methods: Horizontal and vertical sections were collected and separated five months after injection with the fungal broth. Two grams of dry powder was mixed with 20 mL methanol for 3 h at room temperature, and the solution was vibrated in an ultrasonic cleaner bath at 40 °C for 1 h. After vacuum drying, a concentration of 10 mg/mL of the tested samples in methanol was prepared for reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) analysis. (3) Results: The horizontal changes in the compounds and their concentrations were associated with color. Compared to the normal (N) group, G. candidum injection stimulated more compounds at RT 27–42 in the white (W) group, brown (BR) group, and black (B) group. Furthermore, a significant increase in fatty acids was observed in the W group, implying an early plant response after G. candidum injection. In the BR group, the compounds were more similar to commercial agarwood (Out group). In the B group, alkaloids were the main compounds. Vertical changes in the main compounds were not observed, although the compound level varied. A TLC analysis determined the main compounds in the BR group at 254 nm and in the B group at 365 nm. Higher fatty acid levels were found in L6 and L5 and were correlated with higher terpenoid and sesquiterpene levels, suggesting that these compounds were possibly the first stage of agarwood formation. A GC/MS analysis demonstrated that the main compound groups were almost identical to the BR parts. (4) Conclusions: The injection of G. candidum led A. sinensis to synthesize different phytochemicals horizontally, not vertically, in the BR group.
... Out of the forest products in the world, Agarwood is one of the most luxurious and expensive commodities that has a higher market demand via ranked as the most valuable number one product in the world out of the available plant-based aromatics (Kanazawa, 2017;López-Sampson and Page, 2018). This fragrance resin is formed due to a self-defense mechanism in the genera Aquilaria and Gyrinops, that in the family Thymalaeaceae. ...
Agarwood is a high valued resinous wood containing aromatic constituents of sesquiterpenes and phenyl-ethylchromones. They are typically found in the wood tissue of Thymalaeaceae family trees such as Aquilaria and Gyrinops species once they have been physically or chemically damaged or diseased by microbial pathogens. However, the natural occurrence based agarwood production is inadequate to fulfill the worldwide market demand as it never reach to the potential yield. As a result, recent advancements in artificial agarwood induction technology have led to the efficient production of agarwood resin, surpassing conventional methods. These technologies include mechanical, biological, and chemical methods, as well as combinations of these techniques such as fungal inoculation, nailing, drilling, partly trunk pruning, aeration method, agar-wit, C-A kits, Agar-sit, Bottle dipping, ChemJet, Pinhole infusion, Automated transfusion, Agar-Bit and Bamboo stick method. While interdisciplinary approaches have pros and cons, chemical inducers have shown rapid invasion inside particular tree species trunks to produce superior agarwood resin at consistent rate. Therefore, diverse forms of inducers can be utilized to develop this finest fragrance resinous wood in cultivated trees within a short period of time compared to the natural approach and almost similar in the quality compared to the natural agarwood formations. The objective of this review paper was to presents a comprehensive collection of agarwood resin inducing methods and their potential to enhance the total production and the quality of agarwood in the final harvest. The application of these techniques has significant implications to the agarwood industry as it seeks to meet the growing global demand for this highly sought-after and valuable product leading to a high profitable business. Therefore, this review article serves as a valuable collection of resource for the researchers and industry professionals who are ambitious to develop their agarwood industry to a new level.
