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A multi-rotor drone has been adapted for studies of volcanic gas plumes. This adaptation includes improved capacity for high-altitude and long-range, real-time SO2 concentration monitoring, long-range manual control, remotely activated bag sampling and plume speed measurement capability. The drone is capable of acting as a stable platform for vario...
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... results obtained with environmental denuders predict that these bromine species usually only appear within the volcanic plume, we calculate their plume concentrations based on the known duration of exposure in the plume as detected by the SO 2 sensor. Fig- ure 6 shows a photo of the drone, with denuders and Sunkist, mounted on the drone and ready for take-off. ...
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... Samad et al. (2022) developed a low-cost, practical, and reliable UAV system for the high-resolution 3D profiling of air pollutants at a roadside area. Galle et al. (2021) used a multi-rotor UAV to obtain in situ measurements of sul-2672 C.-W. Liang and C.-H. Shen: An integrated uncrewed aerial vehicle platform fur dioxide (SO 2 ), hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations in volcanic gas plumes. De Fazio et al. (2022) developed a remote-controlled UAV with a wide set of sensors to measure the concentrations of air pollutants emitted by waste fires. ...
In this study, an uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV) platform with sensing and sampling systems was developed for three-dimensional (3D) measurements of air pollutant concentrations. The sensing system of this platform contains multiple microsensors and Internet of Things devices for determining the 3D distributions of four critical air pollutants and two meteorological parameters in real time. Moreover, the sampling system comprises remote-controllable gas sampling kits, each of which contains a 1 L Tedlar bag for the 3D measurement of volatile organic compound (VOC) concentrations according to the Toxic Organics-15 (TO-15) method of the US Environmental Protection Agency. The performance of the developed UAV platform was verified in experiments where it was used to detect air pollutant emissions from a large industrial zone in Taiwan that included a traditional industrial park, a precision machinery park, and a municipal waste incineration plant. Three locations were selected as field measurement sites according to the prevailing local wind direction. The vertical distributions of four critical air pollutants, the ambient temperature, and the relative humidity were determined from data gathered at the aforementioned sites in March and May 2023. A total of 56 and 72 chemical species were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed in these two periods, respectively. The experimental results verified the feasibility of using the proposed UAV platform for accurately evaluating the air pollutant concentration distribution and transport in an industrial zone. The sampling system can be used as the sampling part of the TO-15 method, thus extending the method to measure the 3D distribution of VOCs in an area. The UAV platform can serve as a useful tool in the management of and decision-making process for air pollution in industrial areas.
... In the past two decades, geophysical volcano studies have made significant progress in understanding volcanic processes, eruption dynamics, and forecasting, but most research efforts focused on predicting eruptions, managing emergencies, evaluating the impact on local economies, particularly agriculturedependent livelihoods near volcanoes, and characterizing gas emissions, e.g., carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ). [6][7][8][9] Thus, a relatively small amount of research has been carried out for the chemical characterization of fine solid particles (ash) emitted in volcanic plumes, which is crucial since they represent magma fragments expelled from the crater during explosive volcanic eruptions. ...
Real-time analysis of fine ash in volcanic plumes, which represent magma fragments expelled from the crater during explosive eruptions, is a valuable tool for volcano monitoring and hazard assessment. To obtain the chemical characterization of the juvenile pyroclastic material emitted in volcanic plumes, many analytical techniques can be used. Among them, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is the one that can most easily be adapted to advanced applications in extreme environments. In this paper, LIBS experiments based on self-calibrated approaches are used to determine the elemental composition of suspended volcanic ash. To simulate the conditions of dispersed volcanic ash in the atmosphere, different sizes of volcanic ash samples are suspended in the air by laser-induced shockwaves in a dedicated chamber, and a parametric study is carried out to establish the optimal experimental conditions for recording usable plasma emission spectra for each ash size. The quantitative analysis is performed using a self-calibrated analytical method, including calibration-free LIBS, which is based on the calculation of the spectral radiance of a uniform plasma in local thermodynamic equilibrium. The method accounts intrinsically for self-absorption since it modifies the intensity of spectral lines and thus leads to an underestimation of the elemental fraction. An intensity calibration of the spectra based on the measurements of Fe lines intensities was also used in this work to deduce the apparatus response from the spectrum itself and avoid the use of standard calibration lamps. Results demonstrate the potential of real-time measurements of elemental fractions in volcanic ash with good agreement with the literature composition.
... This approach has been pioneered by Chiodini et al. (2011) using aircraft-based plume sampling. Our UAV-based sampling system has previously been used at Manam volcano in Papua New Guinea for passively degassing plumes (Galle et al., 2021;Liu et al., 2020) and at Tajogaite volcano, La Palma, Spain during an eruption (Ericksen et al., in rev.). At Litli Hrútur, we mounted the sampling system on a DJI Phantom 3 or Phantom 4. The sample was collected by pumping about 500 ml of gas into a Tedlar Bag. ...
... After collection the samples were analyzed by IR Isotope Ratio Spectroscopy on an instrument that we had temporarily installed at the University of Iceland. We obtained the d 13 C values and the CO2 concentrations of the samples using analytical techniques identical to those reported previously (Fischer and Lopez, 2016;Galle et al., 2021;Liu et al., 2020). The error on the d 13 C analyses is < 0.1 ‰ and for CO2 concentrations < 10 ppm. ...
We report CO 2 emission rates and plume δ ¹³ C during the July 2023 eruption at Litli Hrútur in the Fagradalsfjall region of the Reykjanes Peninsula. The CO2 emission rates were measured by UAV utilizing a new method of data extrapolation that enables obtaining rapid flux results of dynamic eruption plumes. The δ ¹³ C values are consistent with extensive magma degassing fractionation during and after the eruption. Our results show that rapid, real-time CO 2 flux measurements coupled with isotopic values of samples collected at the same time provide key insights into the dynamics of volcanic eruptions and have the potential of forecasting the onset and termination of activity.
... The use of UAS is revolutionizing volcano science by enabling the collection of data that previously required extensive, costly, and hazardous aerial surveys using piloted fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters. Especially in the field of volcanic gases, recent UAS-based campaigns showed the value of utilizing UAS to make gas flux and gas composition measurements and also collect plume samples for subsequent chemical and isotopic analyses (Liu et al., 2020;Galle et al., 2021). Our work during the explosive and hazardous eruption of Tajogaite Volcano shows that CO 2 emission measurements and plume gas samples can 135 be collected even during these heightened periods of volcanic activity. ...
... CO 2 concentrations were 145 measured by PP Systems SBA-5 IR sensor mounted on the Dragonfly with data transmitted to the pilot in real-time (Ericksen et al., 2022). Wind speeds were measured hand-held anemometer from a high point on the ground close to the launch point and the UAS drift method (Liu et al., 2020;Galle et al., 2021). ...
We report in-plume carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations and isotope ratios during an active eruption of the Tajogaite Volcano. CO2 measurements inform our understanding of volcanic contributions to the global climate carbon cycle, and the role of CO2 in eruptions. Traditional ground-based methods of CO2 collection are difficult and dangerous, as a result only 5 % of volcanoes have been surveyed. We demonstrate that Unpiloted Aerial System (UAS) surveys allow for fast and relatively safe measurements. Using CO2 concentration profiles we estimate total flux to be 1.19 × 106 to 2.80 × 107 t day−1. Isotope ratios indicated a deep magmatic source, consistent with the intensity of the eruption. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of UASs for CO2 surveys during active volcanic eruptions, particularly in calculating plume characteristics.
... Furthermore, UAVs have the potential to enhance weather forecasting and atmospheric measurements [16] and provide accurate data on mixed-phase winter-weather events [17]. They have also been employed in specific applications such as cloud seeding [18], calculation of land surface temperatures [19], volcanic gas plume measurements [20], and cloud exploration [21]. These studies highlight the adaptability and versatility of UAVs in atmospheric and environmental research, demonstrating their potential in various scientific domains. ...
... The key advantages of this UAV include its adaptability in capturing thermal data within densely populated urban areas and its relatively extended endurance of 38 min. For the purpose of volcanic gas plume measurements [20], employs a multi-rotor UAV equipped with the MultiGAS sensor platform, which has been developed specifically by the researchers. It operates using a battery power system with VTOL capability. ...
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are increasingly being used in meteorology research due to their ability to overcome challenges such as difficult access to hazardous locations and the need for high-resolution and real-time data. UAVs provide accurate and precise high-resolution data that allows scientists to study small-scale weather phenomena in unprecedented detail. This survey highlights the different types of UAVs used in meteorology, including fixed-wing, rotary-wing, and hybrid UAVs, as well as the various payload options available, such as sensors for temperature, humidity, pressure, wind, and precipitation. Overall choosing the appropriate UAV for meteorological applications relies on meeting specific mission requirements, including various factors.
... Another project in Malawi is described in [41] in which a single UAV performs three separate public services: medical supply, soil mapping for UNICEF (inspection and imaging that could be used for agriculture, infrastructure and development projects), and aerial surveillance for the Malawi Ranger Service to monitor endangered species and detect poaching. A very different example of multipurpose drone trips that includes sensing and collection (instead of delivery) is [12] which describes using a drone for sensing near erupting volcanoes. Here the drone has sensors to measure concentrations of various molecules and environmental conditions in the volcanic plume, and it also collects physical samples of the volcanic plume. ...
... Constraints (8) guarantee that the duration of each route does not exceed L, while constraints (9) ensure that the demand serviced on each route is not greater than the drone capacity . Constraints (10), (11) and (12) are the binary conditions for the variables. ...
In this article, we present and solve the multi-purpose K-drones general routing problem (MP K-DGRP). In this optimization problem, a fleet of multi-purpose drones, aerial vehicles that can both make deliveries and conduct sensing activities (e.g., imaging), have to jointly visit a set of nodes to make deliveries and map one or more continuous areas. This problem is motivated by global healthcare applications that deploy multipurpose drones that combine delivery trips with collection of aerial imaging data for use in emergency preparedness and resilience planning. The
continuous areas that have to be mapped may correspond to terrain surfaces (e.g., flooded areas or regions with a disease outbreak) or to infrastructure networks to be inspected. The continuous areas can be modeled as a set of lines so that each area is completely serviced if all the lines covering it are traversed. Thus, given a set of nodes and a set of lines, the problem is to design drone routes of shortest total duration traversing the lines and visiting the nodes, while not exceeding the range limit (flight time) and capacity (loading) of the drones. Unlike ground vehicles in classical routing problems, drones can enter a line through any of its points, service only a part of that line and then exit through another of its points. The possibility of flying directly between any two points of the network offered by drones can lead to reduced costs, but it increases the difficulty of the problem. To deal with this problem, the lines are discretized, allowing drones to enter and exit each line only at a finite set of points, thus obtaining an instance of the K-vehicles general routing problem (K-GRP). We present in this article an integer programming formulation for the K-GRP and propose a matheuristic algorithm and a branch-and-cut procedure for its solution. Results are provided for problems with up to 20 deliveries and up to 28 continuous areas.
... Extending beyond the ecosystem scale, horizontal heterogeneity at the landscape scale of surface emissions of volatile organic compounds has recently been demonstrated for volatile isoprenoids using a drone fitted with a volatile collection system (Batista et al., 2019). While acetic acid has not yet been quantified across landscapes using drones, this is expected to change in the near future given the rapid pace of development in both drone and atmospheric sensor technologies (Galle et al., 2021). Development of real-time infrared spectroscopy methods, such as cavity ringdown spectroscopy (CRDS) and tunable laser direct absorption spectroscopy (TILDAS) methods for trace analysis of gaseous ethanol, acetic acid, acetaldehyde, acetone, and other fermentation volatile fluxes is on the horizon (Crunaire et al., 2006;Zhou et al., 2016) and promises to bridge the gap between larger real-time mass-spectrometer systems, and more field portable systems that require reduced footprint and energy requirements. ...
While traditionally considered important mainly in hypoxic roots during flooding, upregulation of fermentation pathways in plants has recently been described as an evolutionarily conserved drought survival strategy, with acetate signaling mediating reprograming of transcription and cellular carbon and energy metabolism from roots to leaves. The amount of acetate produced directly correlates with survival through potential mechanisms including defense gene activation, biosynthesis of primary and secondary metabolites, and aerobic respiration. Here, we review root ethanolic fermentation responses to hypoxia during saturated soil conditions and summarize studies highlighting acetate fermentation under aerobic conditions coupled with respiration during growth and drought responses. Recent work is discussed demonstrating long‐distance transport of acetate via the transpiration stream as a respiratory substrate. While maintenance and growth respiration are often modeled separately in terrestrial models, here we propose the concept of ‘Defense Respiration’ fueled by acetate fermentation in which upregulation of acetate fermentation contributes acetate substrate for alternative energy production via aerobic respiration, biosynthesis of primary and secondary metabolites, and the acetylation of proteins involved in defense gene regulation. Finally, we highlight new frontiers in leaf‐atmosphere emission measurements as a potential way to study acetate fermentation responses of individual leaves, branches, ecosystems, and regions.
... An interesting approach is to combine a few types of sensors simultaneously, which allows monitoring of several gases at the same time [78][79][80]. Multi-sensor systems host several gas sensors and contain all necessary electronics, gas transmission paths, data acquisition, and power management systems. ...
... Volcanoes are natural sources of several air pollutants, including reactive gases (e.g., SO 2 ) and GHGs (e.g., CO 2 ). Drone-assisted monitoring of volcanic plumes provides an interesting option for well-established ground-based measurements, as they can transport gas detectors or samplers directly into the plume, and thus, eliminate the risk to humans [78,[128][129][130][131]. For example, the authors of [128] developed a multi-gas system composed of an amperometric sensor for SO 2 and NDIR detector for CO 2 monitoring. ...
Citation: Jońca, J.; Pawnuk, M.; Bezyk, Y.; Arsen, A.; Sówka, I. Drone-Assisted Monitoring of Atmospheric Pollution-A Comprehensive Review.
... It can provide information on the magmatic system feeding the eruption, and its evolution over time. Generally, for such purposes, technological efforts have been made to characterize the gaseous components, such as SO 2 , H 2 S, HCl, HF and CO 2 (Stoiber et al., 1983;Arellano et al., 2008;Galle et al., 2021). However, very few attempts have been made in the chemical characterization of the juvenile solid particles in the plume, which is very important since it directly represents the product of magma fragmentation in the conduit. ...
Volcanic plumes are rich in fine juvenile ash, representing magma fragments expelled from the crater during explosive eruptions. The composition of fine ash is of primary importance for volcano monitoring and hazard assessment, but not much effort has been put until now to build portable instrumentation allowing real-time measurements. In this paper, a laboratory experiment is carried out to build and test an apparatus based on Calibration-Free Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (CF-LIBS). This methodology is extremely promising because it does not require any standard calibration strategies and the elemental composition is directly obtained by the laser-induced breakdown optical emission. In the experiment, volcanic ash samples are suspended in the air by a laser-induced shockwave in a dedicated chamber, as to mimic the conditions of a volcanic plume, and contemporaneously the laser-induced plasma (LIP) spectrum is analyzed. After spectrum acquisition, the quantitative analysis is performed using the so-called Calibration-Free (CF) analytical method, which is based on the assumption of plasma local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE). Results show that by such methodology it is possible to measure ash composition in real-time, during its dispersion, with good precision. Based on the result of this experiment, the construction of a portable instrument to be used in the field for the monitoring of active volcanoes could be possible in the future.
... Airborne systems can overcome these problems and have already been used to measure the chemical composition of volcanic emissions [14][15][16][17][18][19]. They are useful for a number of reasons, including the fact that now the risk of being endangered by sudden changes in volcanic activity is substantially minimized by the researcher's increased distance to the volcano. ...
The study of the chemical composition of volcanic emissions is an important method for obtaining information about volcanic systems and providing indirect and unique insights into magmatic processes. However, there is a non-negligible risk associated with sampling directly at volcanic craters or maintaining geochemical monitoring stations at such locations. Spectroscopic remote sensing methods, in turn, can measure only a few species. Here, drones offer the opportunity to bring measurement systems to the scene. Standard parameters that are commonly measured are SO 2 and CO 2 concentrations, as well as a number of meteorological parameters. The in-flight transmission of data by radio telemetry plays an important role, since visual localization of the volcanic plume from a distance of several kilometers is practically impossible. Until now, larger and quite cost-intensive drones have been used for this purpose, which must first be transported to the site of operation at great expense. Here, we present the development and successful deployment of a very small drone system (empty weight < 0.9 kg) for chemical characterization of volcanic plumes that can be easily transported on foot to difficult-to-access terrain and, moreover, requires only minimal flight and administrative preparations for operation as an aerial observation platform.
