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In the last 25 years, it is estimated that over 42,000 male and female swimmers have competed at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I-A level. Despite the magnitude of these numbers, little is known about the epidemiology of collegiate swimming injuries. Purpose To describe the pattern of injuries incurred for one NCAA Div...
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Context 1
... female swimmer retired from swimming after her sophomore season during this time period following repeated injuries and 2 shoulder surgeries. Table 1 presents the distribution of injuries to different body regions and related time missed. The body region most often injured by both male and female swimmers was the shoulder and upper arm, which accounted for 31% and 36% of the injuries for each group, respectively. ...
Context 2
... high prevalence of injuries during the early college years is likely explained by the transition from high school training regi- mens to that of the collegiate level. The yardage required of Men Strength 0 4 6 14 2 0 1 0 27 training Practice 3 13 18 7 6 2 0 1 50 Women Strength 0 1 4 8 4 1 1 2 21 training Practice 0 5 23 8 5 2 2 1 46 Total team Strength 0 5 10 22 6 1 2 2 48 training Practice 3 18 41 15 11 4 2 2 96 TABLE 3 Distribution of Injuries and Injuries Resulting in Missed Time college swimmers and additional cross-training activities are often substantially greater than what an athlete was accustomed to in high school and club swimming. This can lead to overuse-type injuries early in a swimmer's college career. ...
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Citations
... Particular in swimming, the assessment of upper quarter mobility/stability is important from both a health-related and a performance-related perspective. In the first case, there are studies that reported a large number of injuries (3) and an increased risk of injury (4) for the shoulder region in swimmers. In the second case, studies have shown differences in YBT-UQ performance depending on swimmers' competition level (5) as well as significant associations between upper quarter mobility/stability and swimming performance (6). ...
Background
The Y Balance Test–Upper Quarter (YBT–UQ) is a cost-effective, well-established, closed kinetic chain test to assess inter-limb asymmetries in the upper quarter that could negatively affect swimming performance. Thus, the aim of the present study was to determine YBT–UQ performances and inter-limb differences as well as its association with swimming performance in athletes with diverging levels of expertise.
Methods
Forty female and male competitive swimmers (age range: 10–22 years) with different expertise levels (A-squad: n = 9, B-squad: n = 12, C-squad: n = 19) were tested (reach distances for the YBT–UQ) and swimming performance was calculated using the ratio of individual to world best time.
Results
YBT–UQ performances (i.e., inferolateral reach direction for the dominant arm: p = .027, ηp2 = .12 and the non-dominant arm: p = .031, ηp2 = .17) but not YBT–UQ inter-limb differences significantly differed between groups and were largest in swimmers with the lowest expertise level (i.e., C-squad). Further, YBT–UQ performances (i.e., inferolateral reach direction [r = −.68 to −.70, both p < .05] and composite score [r = −.65 to −.67, both p < .05] for both arms and medial reach direction for the non-dominant arm [r = −.64, p < .05]) but not inter-limb differences were significantly and negatively correlated with swimming performance among B-squad swimmers.
Conclusions
Our results suggest that inter-limb differences in upper quarter mobility/stability are not influenced by the level of expertise and have no significant associations with swimming performance. However, greater reach distances were correlated with lower swimming performance for the B-squad swimmers indicating that a training-related increase in upper quarter mobility/stability could worsen swimming performance in those athletes.
... There are several published papers on shoulder pain in the swimmer [12,19,[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36]. To our knowledge, a few studies exist on Masters swimmers [21,32,[37][38][39]. ...
Background: Swimming and, specifically, front crawl, can be included among the “overhead” sports. Overhead sports are a risk factor for some problems of the musculoskeletal system, especially the shoulder. The aim of this study was to assess the incidence of shoulder and neck pain in a Masters Swimming Team and its correlation with the crawl stroke. Methods: This is an observational study through video-analysis of the stroke and a questionnaire. The participants selected for the present study were 61 athletes of a Masters team, whose prevailing training stroke was the front crawl. Their stroke was analyzed during training using a go-pro camera mounted on a sliding trolley on a track, evaluating their technical defects with their trainer. A questionnaire about frequency of shoulder and neck pain during the last five years was administered to all the participants at the study. Results: From the questionnaire, 45 and 55 out of 61 athletes had suffered from shoulder pain and cervical pain, respectively. Both types of pain were correlated with the weekly swimming volume. The swimmers with hyperflexion of the wrist and prolonged internal rotation in the pulling phase had shoulder problems. Those who suffered from current shoulder pain reduced the underwater time. The four swimmers with an excessive body roll during breathing and those who kept their heads extended, reported cervical pain. Conclusions: Shoulder and neck pain could be prevented with the correction of specific technical errors in crawl stroke.
... There are several published papers on shoulder pain in the swimmer [12][13][14][15]20,22,[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36]. To our knowledge, a few studies exist on Masters swimmers [17,32,[37][38][39]. ...
Background: Swimming and, specifically, front crawl, can be included among the "overhead" sports. Overhead sports are a risk factor for some problems of the musculoskeletal system, especially the shoulder. The aim of the study was assessing the incidence of shoulder and neck pain in a Masters Swimming Team and its correlation with the crawl stroke. Methods: It is an observational study through video-analysis of the stroke and a questionnaire. The participants are 61 athletes of a Master team, whose prevailing training stroke was the front crawl were selected for the present study. Their stroke was analyzed during training by a go-pro camera mounted on a sliding trolley on a track, evaluating with their trainer their technical defects. A questionnaire about frequency of shoulder and neck pain during the last five years was administered to all the participants at the study. Results: From the questionnaire, 45 and 55 out of 61 athletes had suffered from shoulder pain and cervical pain, respectively. Both types of pain were correlated with the weekly swimming volume. The swimmers with hyperflexion of the wrist and prolonged internal rotation in the pulling phase had shoulder problems. Those who suffered from current shoulder pain reduced the underwater time. The four swimmers with an excessive body roll during breathing and those who kept their heads extended, reported cervical pain. Conclusions: Shoulder and neck pain could be prevented with the correction of specific technical errors in crawl stroke.
... Competitive swimmers have more foot flexibility than other athletes due to the general laxity of their joints (Shimojo et al., 2019), and their excessively flexible feet are typically flat-footed regardless of the growth and development process (Wanivenhaus et al., 2012). Foot injuries in competitive swimmers generally occur during dry land resistance training (Wolf et al., 2009); however, previous studies have not explicitly discussed swimmers' foot morphology. Therefore, it is important to investigate the details of the swimmers' foot posture in terms of the perspective of injury prevention. ...
... In a previous study, the competitive swimmers' foot was not discussed as much as the swimming shoulder, lower back, and knee (Hill et al., 2022). However, most foot injuries occur during dry land resistance training and warm-ups in competitive swimmers, and ankle sprain and instability are considered key issues due to the chronic symptoms (Wolf et al., 2009). Therefore, from our results, the low MLA in swimmers due to insufficient development of the IFMs could be a point of note. ...
This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the relationship between foot shape and intrinsic foot muscles (IFMs) in adolescent swimmers compared with other athletes. Foot morphology of swimmers was compared with other athletes of comparable age and a competition level (n = 32 [64 feet]; a total of 64 feet; 128 feet in two groups). Foot morphology and variables of IFMs were measured using a three-dimensional foot scanner and an ultrasound imaging system, respectively. Multiple linear regression analysis with forced entry was performed to clarify the association of the thickness and the cross-sectional area (CSA) of IMFs with the navicular height in both sitting and standing positions. Navicular height in a standing position, the thickness of the abductor hallucis (AbH) and the flexor digitorum brevis (FDB), as well as the CSA were significantly lower in swimmers compared with other athletes (p < 0.05). A larger CSA for the flexor hallucis brevis (FHB) was observed in swimmers than in other athletes (p < 0.01). The navicular height of swimmers in sitting and standing positions was positively correlated with the thickness and the CSA of the FHB and the FDB (p < 0.05). Multiple regression analysis showed that navicular height was associated with the CSA of the FDB in both sitting and standing positions (β = 0.395; p < 0.002, β = 0.201; p < 0.018). This study showed that the navicular height of elite adolescent swimmers was lower than that of other athletes. Furthermore, the swimmers’ high navicular height was associated with the CSA of the FDB, suggesting that the FDB might be more involved in the formation of the medial longitudinal arch than the AbH.
... Based on the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) study, the 5-year study found that the overall injury rate of professional swimmers was 4.00 injuries per 1000 training hours for men and 3.78 injuries per 1000 training hours for women. Of all injuries, shoulder injuries are the most common, with a prevalence between 40% and 91% [3]. Unlike most other sports, where in most sports the legs are the ones that initiate the propulsive force, swimmers primarily use their arms to generate forward propulsion. ...
Study aim(s): This literature review aims to comprehensively analyze the key risk factors associated with shoulder injuries in swimmers, synthesizing existing research to provide valuable insights for injury prevention strategies and the overall enhancement of swimmers' performance and well-being. Methods: Systematic searches on the Web of Science and Scopus databases were conducted using the following phrase: shoulder injury risks in swimmers. Studies included in this review address, the main risk factors that are associated with shoulder injuries in swimmers. This study is a systematic review model, which is based on the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) standards. Results: This review identified the main risk factors associated with shoulder injuries in swimmers. These insights provide valuable guidance for coaches, athletes, and sports medicine professionals on improving the performance of each swimmer while minimizing shoulder injuries. Conclusion: In conclusion, this literature review has provided a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of shoulder injuries in swimmers and the associated risk factors. Through an in-depth discussion of various studies, we have highlighted the critical aspects that contribute to these injuries. These include the importance of monitoring training loads, maintaining optimal shoulder mobility, considering psychological factors and swimming techniques, and implementing effective injury prevention strategies.
... practice or competition). [4][5][6][7][8][9] Studies conducted at championship meets found four-week shoulder injury prevalence of 13% at the 2015 Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Championships 4 while at the Brazilian National Championship meet, shoulder injury point prevalence was 9% and 12-month shoulder injury prevalence was 26% 4,5 . Studies conducted at competitions miss swimmers who are injured and unable to attend the meet due to their injuries. ...
Background:
Shoulder problems are common in swimmers. Previous research has focused on elite swimmers. Our research questions were: 1) what is the prevalence of shoulder problems among Ontario age group swimmers and 2) how does prevalence relate to age, sex and years of experience?
Methods:
A cross sectional survey was administered to youth swimmers from two Ontario clubs. Oslo Sports Trauma Research Centre Overuse Injury Questionnaire (OSTRC) was used to assess four-week prevalence of shoulder problems. Prevalence (%) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) was constructed and prevalence across age, sex and years of experience was investigated using cross-tabulations and chi-square tests.
Results:
There were 83 surveys completed (response rate 50%). The 4-week prevalence of shoulder pain was 35% (95% CI 25%, 45%). Shoulder problems were not significantly related to age, sex or years of experience.
Conclusion:
These results can inform future studies on injury prevention and risk mitigation strategies in swimmers.
... Musculoskeletal overuse injuries, particularly shoulder injuries, nutrition deficits, and overtraining are most commonly observed among swimmers. A multitude of issues contribute to the "swimmer's shoulder" from hypomibility, instability, lack of strength/muscle imbalance, overuse, change in volume, inadequate recovery to coaching oversigh [39][40][41][42]. Despite the above facts, injuries in sports, including swimming, may be reported more often in women who have FAT syndrome, including estrogen deficiency and reduced BMD. ...
Unlabelled:
Background: An athlete's menstrual cycle may be seriously disturbed when she undertakes a physical activity that exceeds the body's adaptive capacity and/or applies dietary restrictions. The main aim of this study was to assess the impact of swimming training undertaken by participants of sport clubs on disorders of the menstrual cycle.
Methods:
The study involved 64 female athletes. The questionnaire utilized in this study was composed by the authors, however some of the questions were based on Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q).
Results:
31.26% of swimmers reported that the menstrual cycle was stopped for more than 3 months, of which 21.88% had a menstrual absence for more than 6 months and 9.38% between 3 months and 6 months. Years of training were a positive predictor of the 'more profuse bleeding'. There was a negative correlation between the disorders of the menstrual cycle, the body weight of the female participants (p < 0.05) and the body mass index (p < 0.01). It was found that with the severity of the degree of disorder in the menstrual cycle, the number of injuries among the surveyed swimmers increased (p < 0.05).
Conclusions:
The correct body weight of the participants was a positive predictor of the absence of the menstrual cycle disorders among the majority of women practicing swimming. Disorders in the menstrual cycle occurring in a certain percentage of the swimmers positively correlated with the number of injuries recorded among these swimmers. Swimming has been shown to alleviate some of the premenstrual symptoms.
... Numerous studies indicate that drowning indeed represents a threat to children (5,(7)(8)(9)(10)(11). In highly developed countries, both fatal and non-fatal aquatic events (NFAE) are more frequent in public pools (12). However, there is insufficient qualitative data regarding the swimming competence (SC) of young children and adolescents. ...
Introduction
The main purpose of this study was to investigate children's swimming competence in primary schools of districts in Vojvodina, Serbia.
Methods
Included subjects were primary school students from first to eighth grade (N = 2,778; male = 1,454, female = 1,324; age = 10.73 ± 2.1 years). We used Swimming Competence Questionnaire to acquire and analyze their swimming experience, non-fatal aquatic events, and demographics. For the statistical analysis, logistic regression and hierarchical multiple regression were used to evaluate if the factors and SC and NFAE were associated. The analyses were carried out by using SPSS® software version 24.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, Illinois, USA).
Results
Families with more income and education generally have children with more swimming competence, experience, knowledge, and skills related to water safety. First step in analysis revealed that gender (β = 0.05, p < 0.01), education level (β = 0.06, p < 0.01) age (β = 0.171, p < 0.01), and family income (β = 0.04, p < 0.01) were significant swimming competence (SC) predictors (R2 = 0.04). Age (OR = 1.15, p < 0.01) was the only significant predictor in Step 1 predicting non-fatal aquatic events (NFAE). In Step 2, variables associated with SC were swimming location (ΔR2 = 0.06, p < 0.01), swimming experience (ΔR2 = 0.16, p < 0.01), swimming accessibility (ΔR2 = 0.05, p < 0.01), and learning experience (ΔR2 = 0.03, p < 0.01) (total R2 = 0.26 to 0.47, p < 0.01). Only a minority of participants reported that they could not swim further than 5 meters using general stroke (37.15%).
Conclusion
National education trainers programs must be prioritized with the primary strategy of transferring knowledge to swimming and water safety. Families with lower income must be included without exceptions. This is perhaps a key factor in preventing NFAE, increasing SC, and increasing water safety.
... The need for early and regular strength training arises from the observation of overuse injuries typical of swimming. The regions of the body affected are primarily the spine [36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46], shoulders [35][36][37][38][39][40][41]43,45,[47][48][49][50][51][52][53] and knees [36][37][38]40,41,43,[54][55][56]. The causes of these issues are, in particular, orthopedically unfavorable movement sequences (e.g., the leg kick in breaststroke with the consequences of overtraining the medial collateral ligament and/or chondromalacia of the patella, medial compartment synovitis, inflammation and fibrosis of the synovial plica; shoulder: subacromial or intra-articular impingement, reduced glenohumeral stability; spine: degenerative disk changes), incorrect techniques (e.g., stretched arm guidance in the recovery phase in crawl and dolphin swimming, increased lordosis during dolphin swimming) and incorrect use of training aids [4]. ...
... The need for early and regular strength training arises from the observation of overuse injuries typical of swimming. The regions of the body affected are primarily the spine [36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46], shoulders [35][36][37][38][39][40][41]43,45,[47][48][49][50][51][52][53] and knees [36][37][38]40,41,43,[54][55][56]. The causes of these issues are, in particular, orthopedically unfavorable movement sequences (e.g., the leg kick in breaststroke with the consequences of overtraining the medial collateral ligament and/or chondromalacia of the patella, medial compartment synovitis, inflammation and fibrosis of the synovial plica; shoulder: subacromial or intra-articular impingement, reduced glenohumeral stability; spine: degenerative disk changes), incorrect techniques (e.g., stretched arm guidance in the recovery phase in crawl and dolphin swimming, increased lordosis during dolphin swimming) and incorrect use of training aids [4]. ...
This narrative review deals with the topic of strength training in swimming, which has been a controversial issue for decades. It is not only about the importance for the performance at start, turn and swim speed, but also about the question of how to design a strength training program. Different approaches are discussed in the literature, with two aspects in the foreground. On the one hand is the discussion about the optimal intensity in strength training and, on the other hand, is the question of how specific strength training should be designed. In addition to a summary of the current state of research regarding the importance of strength training for swimming, the article shows which
physiological adaptations should be achieved in order to be able to increase performance in the long term. Furthermore, an attempt is made to explain why some training contents seem to be rather unsuitable when it comes to increasing strength as a basis for higher performance in the start, turn and clean swimming. Practical training consequences are then derived from this. Regardless of the athlete’s performance development, preventive aspects should also be
onsidered in the discussion. The article provides a critical overview of the abovementioned key issues. The most important points when designing a strength training program for swimming are a sufficiently high-load intensity to increase maximum strength, which in turn is the basis for power, year-round trength training, parallel to swim training and working on the transfer of acquired strength skills in swim training, and not through supposedly specific strength training exercises on land or in the water.
... The current breadth of literature analyzing injuries and return to sport among elite swimmers is limited by number of studies, methodological limitations, and/or sufficient sample size; thus, it is generally accepted that there is an identifiable current demand for research addressing this knowledge gap. 10,33,37 The current study used a health database from the Pac-12 conference to better understand the prevalence of injuries and illnesses as well as associated return to sport among male and female collegiate swimmers. Although the current study analyzed swimmers from the Pac-12 conference, the authors believe these results are comparable with all collegiate swimmers. ...
... The concussion rate in this study is much higher than the 1.7% rate suggested in the limited literature on concussions in swimmers. 37 As more attention has been placed on the health effects and long-term sequelae of concussions in recent years, this difference in concussion rate may be attributed to increased recognition of concussion mechanisms and symptoms. This study also found that female swimmers were significantly more likely to sustain a concussion than were male swimmers (RR, 2.11; 95% CI, 1.13-3.96) ...
Background
There is limited literature characterizing the incidence, variety, and effects of injuries and illnesses observed in elite swimmers.
Purpose
To describe the epidemiology of injuries and illnesses affecting elite intercollegiate competitive swimmers.
Study Design
Descriptive epidemiology study.
Methods
This retrospective study utilized a deidentified injury and illness database of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I swimmers in the Pacific Coast Conference from the academic years 2016 to 2017 and 2019 to 2020. A health event was defined as an illness or musculoskeletal injury that was identified by an athletic trainer or team physician. Musculoskeletal injuries and nonmusculoskeletal injuries and illnesses were stratified by body location. Injuries were further characterized as career-ending, season-ending, missed time but the athlete returned to sport in the same season, or those that did not cause missed time. Relative risk (RR) was used to compare the percentage of athletes affected between women and men, with statistical significance being defined by a 95% CI not including 1.
Results
Included were 641 collegiate swimmers (301 male, 340 female). There were 1030 health events among 277 women and 173 men, with 635 (61.7%) occurring in women and 395 (38.3%) in men. There were 540 musculoskeletal injuries reported, most of which involved the shoulder (n = 126; 23.3%), spine (n = 95; 17.6%), foot/ankle/lower leg (n = 81; 15.0%), knee/thigh (n = 67; 12.4%), and hand/wrist/forearm (n = 52; 9.6%). A total of 490 nonmusculoskeletal health events were reported and included events such as respiratory tract infections (n = 119; 24.3%), unspecified medical illness (n = 93; 19.0%), concussions (n = 58; 11.8%), ear infections (n = 25; 5.1%), and gastrointestinal illnesses (n = 24; 4.9%). Compared with male swimmers, female swimmers were at a higher risk of sustaining both musculoskeletal injury (RR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.22-1.83) and nonmusculoskeletal injury/illness (RR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.04-1.68). There were 58 documented concussions, with 8 (13.8%) being season-ending, but not career-ending and 14 (24.1%) being career-ending. Women had a higher rate of concussion (9.1% vs 4.3% for men; RR, 2.11; 95% CI, 1.13-3.96).
Conclusion
This retrospective study identified the most common injuries and illnesses observed among elite collegiate swimmers. Awareness of the incidence and outcome of injuries and illnesses that affect competitive swimmers may allow for more targeted analyses and injury prevention strategies.
