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This report describes one potential biochemical ethanol conversion process, conceptually based upon core conversion and process integration research at NREL. The overarching process design converts corn stover to ethanol by dilute-acid pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification, and co-fermentation. Building on design reports published in 2002 and 19...
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Cellulosic bioethanol production has been fraught with challenges, including fluctuations in feedstock supply, handling costs, pretreatment, enzymes, and other logistical problems. Most studies of lignocellulosic ethanol production have focused on a single type of biomass; however, full utilization of various lignocellulosic biomass sources might e...
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... where 0 and 1 represent the reference and actual values (based on pulp mill scenario), respectively. 45 Scaling factors (SF) range from 0.6 to 1 depending on equipment type, 49 and Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) i values are used to update these costs from the reference date 2011 50 to the start-up year 2023, being CEPCI 0 585.7 50 and CEPCI 1 803.3. 51 After estimating the equipment cost, the fixed-capital investment is calculated by incorporating additional direct and indirect costs, as percentages of the equipment cost, along with land and infrastructure expenses. ...
... 51 After estimating the equipment cost, the fixed-capital investment is calculated by incorporating additional direct and indirect costs, as percentages of the equipment cost, along with land and infrastructure expenses. 50 Direct costs encompass elements such as equipment installation, instruments and controls, piping, electrical systems, buildings, yard improvements, and service facilities. Indirect costs, on the other hand, encompass engineering, construction expenses, legal fees, contractor fees, and contingency. ...
... Reference equipment cost list.50,68 ...
The growing interest in bamboo fibers for pulp, paper, and board production in the USA necessitates a comprehensive financial viability assessment. This study conducts a detailed technoeconomic analysis (TEA) of bamboo fiber production, primarily for the consumer hygiene tissue market although it is also applicable to other industrial uses. The economic viability of two pulping methods – alkaline peroxide mechanical pulping (APMP) and ammonium bisulfite chemical pulping (ABS) – was explored within three different pulp mill settings to supply pulp to two nonintegrated tissue and towel mills in South Carolina, USA. The target was to produce wet lap bamboo bleached pulp at 50% consistency and 70% ISO brightness. Despite higher initial capital invesment and operating costs, ABS achieved a lower minimum required selling price – USD 544 to 686 per bone dry metric ton (BDt = 1000 BDkg) – in comparison with USD 766 to 899 BDt⁻¹ for APMP. This price advantage is partly due to an additional revenue stream (lignosulfonate byproduct), which not only boosts revenue but also circumvents the need for expensive chemical recovery systems. When compared with traditional kraft pulping, both methods require significantly lower capital investments, with minimum required selling prices (estimated to achieve 16% IRR) below current market rates for extensively used bleached kraft pulps in the USA tissue industry. The economic benefits derive from several factors: the low cost of bamboo as raw material, reduced capital needs for new pulping technologies, lower transportation costs from the pulp mill to tissue and towel manufacturing facilities, and the high market price of bleached kraft pulp.
... Annual operating costs include raw materials costs, utility costs, labour costs and facility-dependent costs such as insurance. These parameters are kept constant as per the 2011 National Renewable Energy Laboratory report 59 . ...
Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are a diverse class of carbohydrates which support the health and development of infants. The vast health benefits of HMOs have made them a commercial target for microbial production; however, producing the approximately 200 structurally diverse HMOs at scale has proved difficult. Here we produce a diversity of HMOs by leveraging the robust carbohydrate anabolism of plants. This diversity includes high-value and complex HMOs, such as lacto-N-fucopentaose I. HMOs produced in transgenic plants provided strong bifidogenic properties, indicating their ability to serve as a prebiotic supplement with potential applications in adult and infant health. Technoeconomic analyses demonstrate that producing HMOs in plants provides a path to the large-scale production of specific HMOs at lower prices than microbial production platforms. Our work demonstrates the promise in leveraging plants for the low-cost and sustainable production of HMOs.
... The details of these equipment designs have been published previously. 7,10,35,37,38 Once equipment costs were determined, direct and indirect overhead cost factors were applied to determine a feasibility-level estimate of fixed capital investment (FCI) in 2020 US dollars. These factors are shown in Table S7 (ESI †) along with a summary of capital expenditures for the facility. ...
... Variable operating expenses were calculated based on raw material and utility rates from the process model, while fixed costs (labor, maintenance, insurance, and local taxes, listed in Table S8, ESI †) are based on factors from prior works and adjusted based on plant scale. 38 Financial assumptions used in this analysis are shown in Table S9 (ESI †), which are based on a mature nth plant and consistent with prior published works. Policy incentives based on the modeled fuel carbon intensity (CI) were also included as an optional sensitivity study and are described in Table S10 (ESI †). ...
We develop a catalytic process comprising exclusively of flow reactions for conversion of wet waste-derived volatile fatty acids to sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) and key aromatic building blocks (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene; BTEX). Acids are upgraded via sequential ketonization and either cyclization of light (C3–7) ketones to BTEX and an aromatic SAF blendstock or hydrodeoxygenation of C8+ ketones to an alkane SAF blendstock. The enabling step investigated in this work is light ketone cyclization over H/ZSM-5, which was chosen through screening upgrading of 4-heptanone over solid acidic and basic catalysts. We then determined the reaction network of 4-heptanone upgrading by analyzing selectivity trends with conversion and concluded that the reaction should be run at full conversion. Finally, we demonstrated the entire acid upgrading process by converting commercial food waste-derived carboxylic acids to SAF blendstocks and BTEX. We blended the C9+ aromatic and alkane products to create one SAF blendstock and show that this mixture can be blended 50/50 with Jet A and meet all critical property standards. Techno-economic analysis and life cycle assessment show that utilizing a food waste feedstock for the process can be economically feasible with current policy incentives and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by more than 250%.
... Under ideal conditions, where processed waste is incinerated and waste heat is recovered to offset processed energy requirements, the energy conversion rate of poplar biomass ethanol reaches 37.67%. This figure surpasses the energy conversion rate of cellulosic ethanol [52][53][54][55]. Finally, after delignification pretreatment, dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment, and enzymolysis, 100 g raw poplar obtained 41.52 g glucose, 15.53 g xylose, which was fermented to produce 26.81 g ethanol ( Figure 6). ...
Cellulosic ethanol is the key technology to alleviate the pressure of energy supply and climate change. However, the ethanol production process, which is close to industrial production and has a high saccharification rate and ethanol yield, still needs to be developed. This study demonstrates the effective conversion of poplar wood waste into fuel-grade ethanol. By employing a two-step pretreatment using sodium chlorite (SC)-dilute sulfuric acid (DSA), the raw material achieved a sugar conversion rate exceeding 85% of the theoretical value. Under optimized conditions, brewing yeast co-utilizing C6/C5 enabled a yield of 35 g/L ethanol from 10% solid loading delignified poplar hydrolysate. We increased the solid loading to enhance the final ethanol concentration and optimized both the hydrolysis and fermentation stages. With 20% solid loading delignified poplar hydrolysate, the final ethanol concentration reached 60 g/L, a 71.4% increase from the 10% solid loading. Our work incorporates the pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation stages to establish a simple, crude poplar waste fuel ethanol process, expanding the range of feedstocks for second-generation fuel ethanol production.
... To calculate the NPV and Payback values, it is necessary to develop a discounted cash flow analysis. For this purpose, the parameters described by Humbird et al. (2011) have been considered. The useful life of the plant was assumed to be 30 years, requiring 3 years for plant construction, an interest rate of 10% and 7 years for depreciation, with a working capital estimate of 5% of the FCI. ...
The food industry requires new production models that include more environmentally friendly waste management practices, considering that the environmental loads of solid waste and wastewater associated with this sector cause damage to the receiving ecosystems. The approach considered in this study focuses on the design and environmental assessment of an enzymatic process for the valorization of ferulic acid present in the effluent of a corn tortilla plant. The ferulic acid can be immobilized on chitosan so that the ferulic acid grafted chitosan can be used as a bioactive film with enhanced antioxidant properties with potential applications in the biotechnology sector.
Its real projection approach requires the evaluation of its environmental and economic performance, trying to identify its benefits and potential in the value chain, using the Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) as a phase for the conceptual design of the process and the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology for the environmental evaluation. It should be noted that the TEA indicators are promising, since the values of the financial indicators obtained are representative of the economic profitability, which makes the ferulic acid valorization a viable process. In terms of the environmental impact of the process, the buffer dose and the chitosan production process are identified as the main critical points. This double benefit in environmental and economic terms shows that the valorization of ferulic acid for chitosan functionalization is a promising alternative to improve the sustainability performance of corn processing.
... The process of ethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass as described in the NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA) report [18] was used for simulation ( Fig. 1). The process involves dilute acid pretreatment of corn stover biomass, enzymatic saccharification of the cellulose and fermentation of the six and five carbon sugar compounds to ethanol. ...
... Subsequently the flow sheet was generated by adding unit operations and material streams. The units for mixer, cooler, heater, heat 1 Ethanol production process reprinted with permission from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory [18] exchangers, rectifiers etc. already existed in the DWSIM library. However, the units for the reactions of saccharification, fermentation, and distillation were user-defined (as described in Section 2.5) to simulate the process. ...
... The streams considered for the analysis were the properties of the outputs from pretreatment (pretreated liquid, blow down slurry, flash tank, hydrolysate, saccharified slurry, fermented liquid, distilled ethanol vapor, rectifier ethanol vapor and dehydrated ethanol. Once the flowsheet was solved, the outlet mass flow rates of each component was obtained from each section and compared with the ASPEN simulated values available in the literature [18]. Further, the difference between the values was calculated using Eq. ...
In the recent times, the application of process simulation software has found its way to the simulation of bioprocesses. Presently, bioprocesses are simulated and technoeconomic analysis is performed in commercially available software for such as SuperPro Designer®, Aspen Plus® etc. These softwares are not freely available and therefore, there exists a need for an open source software for the simulation of bioprocesses. Furthermore, the chemical process softwares show compatibility issues, when used for bioprocesses. More recently, an open source process simulator called DWSIM was introduced for the simulation of chemical processes. However, the applicability and compatibility of DWSIM for complex bioprocess simulation involving microbial biomass has not been reported yet. Therefore, the present study evaluates and reports the simulation results of the bioethanol production process developed by NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA), performed in DWSIM. The simulator results were compared to those of existing commercial software, and the results showed good agreement with the literature. This suggests that DWSIM could be a promising alternative for bioprocess flowsheeting and simulation, and further technoeconomic analysis.
... Table S2 shows the equipment cost information. The base costs of equipment, piping, and installation were derived from (Humbird et al., 2011) and the ADBC, and scaled accordingly using the power law Equation (1), where C b is the cost of the base equipment at a baseline mass M b and C s is the estimated cost of the equipment at the required mass capacity, M s . n is the economy of scale sizing exponent. ...
Restoring native grassland vegetation can substantially improve ecosystem service outcomes from agricultural watersheds, but profitable pathways are needed to incentivize conversion from conventional crops. Given growing demand for renewable energy, using grassy biomass to produce biofuels provides a potential solution. We assessed the techno‐economic feasibility and life cycle outcomes of a “grass‐to‐gas” pathway that includes harvesting grassy (lignocellulosic) biomass for renewable natural gas (RNG) production through anaerobic digestion (AD), expanding on previous research that quantified ecosystem service and landowner financial outcomes of simulated grassland restoration in the Grand River Basin of Iowa and Missouri, United States. We found that the amount of RNG produced through AD of grassy biomass ranged 0.12–45.04 million gigajoules (GJ), and the net present value (NPV) of the RNG ranged −$97 to $422 million, depending on the combination of land use, productivity, and environmental credit scenarios. Positive NPVs are achieved with environmental credits for replacement of synthetic agricultural inputs with digestate and clean fuel production (e.g., USEPA D3 Renewable Identification Number, California Low Carbon Fuel Standard). Producing RNG from grassy biomass emits 15.1 g CO2‐eq/MJ, which compares favorably to the fossil natural gas value of 61.1 g CO2‐eq/MJ and exceeds the US Environmental Protection Agency's requirement for cellulosic biofuel. Overall, this study demonstrates opportunities and limitations to using grassy biomass from restored grasslands for sustainable RNG production.
... To accurately compare the energy content of liquid fuels, we consider the fuel yields from technologies in Table 1 in gallons of gasoline equivalents (GGE) instead of volume (l). GGE is the preferred unit of the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory, which is the primary source for process data for this study 21 . For clarity, we also include standard (SI) units when applicable. ...
... At the biorefinery, detailed models are available for single conversion technologies (particularly from researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, who performed detailed process design for biorefineries using microbial conversion, pyrolysis and gasification [21][22][23] ); however, most SC studies consider simplified models of the biorefinery, and only some have compared the economics of different conversion technologies simultaneously 24,25 . To achieve further GHG mitigation, researchers have examined using CCS to capture CO 2 from the different high-concentration process streams at biorefineries 26,27 . ...
... We also assume the potential locations must have a land area of 500 acres (ref. 21). Potential sites within 5 km were treated as a single biorefinery with the location taken as the mean longitude and latitude of the potential sites within the 5 km range. ...
The large-scale production of cellulosic biofuels would involve spatially distributed systems including biomass fields, logistics networks and biorefineries. Better understanding of the interactions between landscape-related decisions and the design of biorefineries with carbon capture and storage (CCS) in a supply chain context is needed to enable efficient systems. Here we analyse the cost and greenhouse gas mitigation potential for cellulosic biofuel supply chains in the US Midwest using realistic spatially explicit land availability and crop productivity data and consider fuel conversion technologies with detailed CCS design for their associated CO2 streams. Optimization methods identify trade-offs and design strategies leading to systems with attractive environmental and economic performance. Strategic and operational decisions depend on underlying spatial features and are sensitive to biofuel demand and CCS incentives. US CCS incentives neglect to motivate greenhouse gas mitigation from all supply chain emission sources, which leverage spatial interactions between CCS, electricity prices and the biomass landscape.
... During molecular sieve adsorption, ethanol was dehydrated to a concentration of 99.5%, and low-purity ethanol was produced for recycling to the rectification column. In addition, to reduce the loss of ethanol, a vent scrubber was set up to wash the gas-phase products and the fermentation gas phase to recover ethanol [26]. The specific operating parameters are shown in Table 2. ...
... The equipment acquisition and installation costs in this study were based on NREL reports [26,42]. It was calculated by the production scale index method [43] according to Eq. (9): ...
In this study, a comprehensive comparison of the poplar wood fermentation process and fermentation-coupled gasification process was carried out from energy, environmental, and economic perspectives. The process of fuel ethanol from poplar wood fermentation (Case 1) and fuel ethanol from poplar wood fermentation coupled with lignin gasification for jet fuel (Case 2) was simulated using aspen plus software. The exergy analysis showed that the exergy efficiency of Case 1 and Case 2 were 36% and 35.6%, respectively. The product separation process contributed the most to the exergy losses, and the Case 2 had a 4.5% increase in revenue exergy over Case 1. The life cycle assessment (LCA) results showed that biofuels had a lower environmental impact than conventional petrol, and Case 2 was lower than Case 1. The production stage contributed the most to the global warming potential (GWP) of Case 1 and Case 2 with 49.4% and 51.2%, respectively. The techno-economic analysis showed that the fixed investment in Case 2 had increased by $112.9 million, and the annual operating costs had increased by $27 million compared to Case 1. The costs of fuel production in Case 1 and Case 2 were $1079.3/ton and $1033.4/ton, respectively.
Graphical Abstract
... The purchased cost for packing was calculated from the following formula: The total internals purchase cost for these two columns is a sum of the mentioned factors. The total internals installed cost was calculated assuming an installation factor of 2.4 [4]. ...
... Shell and tube heat exchanger configuration was assumed and the cost were calculated as: Purchased cost M S P F = Whereby P is power in kW and F c of 1 for centrifugal compressors was assumed. The installed costs of the compressors were obtained with an installation factor of 1.6 [4]. ...
... 467.2 and 20,480, respectively. The installed pumps costs were obtained by multiplying the purchased costs with an installation factor of 2.3[4]. ...
