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Diffusion modeling of Mg in plagioclase for Plinian Nevado de Toluca plagioclase. Black dashed lines show Mg concentrations calculated to be in equilibrium with crystal rims and cores. Green lines show calculated initial Mg concentrations (supporting information methods section). The red rectangles are the Mg concentrations measured in plagioclase with symbol size corresponding to the 2 sigma error for Mg and the width of the analytical spot. The starting point for diffusion modeling in each crystal was considered to be the closest point to the rim of the crystals at which the fully equilibrated and initial profiles rejoin. Textural features like prominent resorption surfaces, visible in BSE images, were also used as a reference starting point. Modeled curves are shown in orange color and are labeled for time in years. BSE images on the right side show the location of traverses (white lines) and laser ablation‐inductively coupled plasma‐mass spectrometry spots (rectangles) in these crystals.
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Nevado de Toluca is a stratovolcano in the densely populated Mexican Highland and the source of three late Pleistocene Plinian eruptions. While the characterization of the magmatic processes and timescales, leading to these events, is crucial to evaluate potential signals of the reawakening of this volcano, they are not well constrained. Here we pr...
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Citations
... For some silicic magma systems, independent time constraints have been obtained via Fe-Mg interdiffusion chronometry in zoned orthopyroxene crystals. Corresponding priming times are on the order of decades at Taupo 6,30 , and decades to centuries at the Nevado de Toluca volcano in Mexico 43 . These time scales are in broad agreement with those obtained in the present study. ...
... according to measurements on NIST SRM 610 glass. Analyzed isotopes comprise 7 Li, 11 B, 23 Na, 25 Mg, 29 Si, 30 Si, 39 K, 43 Ca, 49 Ti, 55 Mn, 57 232 Th and 238 U, using dwell times of 10-50 ms per isotope. External standardization of the major and minor elements in melt inclusions was performed on a rhyolitic obsidian standard 61 , whereas NIST SRM 610 was used for the trace elements. ...
Titanium diffusion profiles in quartz crystals are widely applied to constrain the duration of magmatic processes. However, experimentally determined Ti diffusion coefficients in quartz diverge by three orders of magnitude. To rectify this problem we derive Ti diffusion coefficients from natural quartz phenocrysts from the 1991 eruption at Mt. Pinatubo, by combining U-Th ages of small (15–40 µm long) zircon inclusions with Ti diffusion profiles measured at nearby growth zone contacts in the same quartz crystals. Application of the obtained data to quartz crystals with Ti-rich rims from thirteen silicic volcanic tuffs worldwide suggests that the magmas erupted years to thousands of years after magma chamber rejuvenation, with the priming time increasing with magma volume and decreasing temperature. Here we show that the time scales involved in the generation of silicic volcanic eruptions are much longer than originally thought.
... P-T-H2O conditions are at the core of establishing meaningful links between petrological processes and geophysical monitoring of active volcanoes (Weber and Castro, 2017;Magee et al. 2018;Pritchard et al. 2018;Halldórsson et al. 2022;Dayton et al. 2023) and set fundamental controls on eruption dynamics (Ruprecht and Bachmann, 2010;Andújar and Scaillet, 2012;Cassidy et al. 2018;Popa et al. 2021). In addition, diffusion studies are heavily dependent on temperature information to reconstruct timescales of magmatic processes (Petrone et al. 2016;Weber et al. 2019;Costa et al. 2020;Chakraborty and Dohmen, 2022). A thorough understanding of magmatic variables is therefore essential for further progress in a variety of petrological fields. ...
... 2) Textural observations: The method can be expected to work best for aphyric or crystalpoor magmas, given that these may represent extracted liquids that are unlikely to have experienced significant crystal accumulation. 3) Mineral zoning: Reverse zonation textures such as An-Fe-Mg rich plagioclase rims (Ruprecht and Wörner, 2007), Cr-rich rims in pyroxenes (Ubide and Kamber, 2018;Weber et al. 2019) or Mg-rich rims in olivine (Gordeychik et al. 2018) are all suggestive of magma mixing and re-equilibration processes. Bulk-rocks with crystal cargo dominated by this type of zoning are thus likely not representative of the original melt composition and should be avoided when using the melt-only model. ...
Experimentally calibrated models to recover pressures, temperatures and water contents of magmas, are widely used in igneous petrology. However, large errors, especially in barometry, limit the capacity of these models to resolve the architecture of crustal igneous systems. Here we apply machine learning to a large experimental database to calibrate new regression models that recover P-T-H2O of magmas based on either melt composition or melt composition plus associated phase assemblage. The method is applicable to compositions from basalt to rhyolite, pressures from 0.2 to 14.5 kbar, temperatures of 675-1425°C, and H2O contents up to 15 wt.%. Testing and optimisation of the model show that pressures can be recovered with root-mean-square-error (RMSE) of 1.2 and 1.0 kbar for the melt-only and melt-phase assemblage models respectively. Errors on temperature estimates are 22-25°C and 1.0-1.3 wt.% for H2O. Our findings demonstrate that melt chemistry is a reliable recorder of magmatic variables. This is a consequence of the relatively low thermodynamic variance of natural magma compositions despite their relatively large number of constituent oxide components. We apply our model to three contrasting cases with well-constrained geophysical information: Mount St. Helens volcano in the Cascades arc (USA), the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex (APVC) in Chile, and the Askja caldera in Iceland. Dacite whole-rocks from Mount St Helens erupted 1980-1986 yield magma source pressures of 3.3-4.3 kbar in excellent agreement with experimental petrology, seismic tomography, magnetotelluric images and earthquake hypocentres. Melt inclusions and matrix glasses record lower pressures, consistent with magma crystallisation during ascent. Glasses and phase assemblages for three large magnitude APVC eruptions (Atana, Toconao, Purico ignimbrites) yield magma storage pressures and temperatures of 1.7-2.4 kbar and 726-789°C, in excellent agreement with previous thermobarometry. While these pressures are shallower than the underlying Altiplano-Puna Magma Body (APMB), rhyolite whole-rock compositions indicate pressures equivalent to the top of the APMB. We suggest that extraction of rhyolitic liquids from the APMB mush, followed by crystallisation at shallower depth preceded each eruption. Magma reservoir depth estimates for historical eruptions from Askja match the location of seismic wave speed anomalies. We show that Vp/Vs anomalies at 5-10 km depth correspond to hot (~1000°C) rhyolite source regions, while basaltic magmas (~1150°C) were stored at 15 km depth under the caldera. These examples illustrate how our model can link petrology and geophysics to better constrain the architecture of volcanic feeding systems. Our model (MagMaTaB) is accessible through a user-friendly web application (https://igdrasil.shinyapps.io/MagMaTaBv23/).
... where C is 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, t is time in seconds, and x the spatial coordinate in meters. We use an explicit finite difference method to solve the diffusion equation numerically (Costa et al., 2008;Dohmen et al., 2017;Weber et al., 2019). As D is variable as a function of space, which is constrained by the X An profile, it must be evaluated between numerical nodes to maintain accuracy of the solution. ...
... We are therefore confident that the variation in crystal cores is representative of the studied eruptions even when considering that some cores may have not been exposed due to 2D sectioning effects. Taken together, the observed zonation patterns for the three eruptions are similar in that they record oscillatory overgrowth of compositionally distinct pre-existing grains but no evidence for large scale reheating of the system, which would be manifest in crystal rims as either pronounced resorption surfaces or reverse zonation with high BSE intensity (Cashman & Blundy, 2013;Humphreys et al., 2006;Ruprecht & Wörner, 2007;Weber et al., 2019). ...
Giant volcanic eruptions have the potential to overturn civilizations. Yet, the driving mechanism and timescale over which batholithic magma reservoirs transition from non‐eruptible crystal mush to mobile melt‐dominated stages and our capacity to detect a pending super‐eruption remain obscure. Here we show, using Sr isotope zonation in plagioclase crystals from three Andean large‐magnitude eruptions (Atana, Toconao, and Tara ignimbrites), that eruptible magma forms by amalgamation of isotopically diverse crystal populations and silicic melt without large‐scale reheating. In each case, crystals record large isotopic diversity in crystal cores, converging toward a common value in crystal rims that coincides with the composition of the rhyolitic carrier melt. Using diffusion chronometry, we show that the assembled magma resided pre‐eruptively in the crust for timescales of no more than decades to centuries for Atana and Tara, but up to several millennia for Toconao. These timescales and isotopic observations are consistent with the accumulation and destabilization of melt‐rich layers in crystal mush. While the prospect of capturing such melt lenses with most geophysical monitoring techniques is pessimistic, gravity modeling indicates that such structures are potentially resolvable. Our findings provoke a new assessment of the origin and hazards associated with large magnitude explosive eruptions.
... Indeed, magmatic perturbations prior to eruptions emitting basalt or basanite are generally occurring from days to months before the eruption (olivine studies) [13][14][15][16]50,51,[77][78][79][80][86][87][88][89][90][91][92] . For more evolved magmas (basaltic andesite/andesitic/dacitic magma; on olivines, orthopyroxenes, clinopyroxenes, plagioclase or apatites) 18,20,21,28,93 , timescales are in the order of a few years 21,81,82 to decades or more 26,[94][95][96][97][98] , even if some eruptions have shorter pre-eruptive timescales (~1 year). For dacitic to rhyolitic magmas, using the same crystals as for the previous systems but also quartz, timescales are between one year to longer timescales, such as centuries 17,26,29,49,97,[99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106] and also correspond to magma recharge or heating experienced by the magmas. ...
The increase in number and intensity of earthquakes during a pre-eruptive crisis is the main basis of seismic volcano monitoring. However, a strong understanding of how these seismic signals relate to magmatic processes in the magma plumbing systems prior to volcanic eruptions is crucial for these efforts. Here we compare the characteristics of a seismo-volcanic crisis prior to the 2010–2013 explosive-extrusive eruption of Kizimen volcano, Kamchatka with the timescales of processes in the magma plumbing system. These timescales are inferred from the numerical modelling of iron-magnesium intracrystalline interdiffusion in 88 zoned orthopyroxene crystals from dacites and silica-rich andesites collected after the eruption. We find that the eruptible magmas were assembled rapidly during a magma mixing process beginning around 1.5 years before the eruption, which is well correlated with the onset of the seismic crisis. We conclude that the observed seismic re-activation marked the onset of magma mixing and led to destabilization of the reservoir, followed by the eruption. Rapid magma mixing and destabilization prior to eruption can be recorded by correlating timescales of crystal diffusion and seismicity, according to a petrological study of Kizimen volcano, Russia
... At the same time, postcaldera volcanism suggests that in some cases the evacuation of such eruptible magma may leave substantial volumes of crystal mush at variable depths in the crust, rheologically able to trap recharge magma and allow caldera resurgence (Marsh 1984, Galetto et al. 2017. In other cases, the shallowest portions of a plumbing system behave as ephemeral (Gualda et al. 2019;Weber et al. 2019Weber et al. , 2020, alternating periods when large magma reservoirs are present in the upper crust and represent a rheological barrier to the ascent of deeply sourced magma and periods where no such large magma reservoirs exist at shallow depths . Thus, the presence or absence of crystal mushes at a few kilometers depth plays an important role in modulating volcanic activity, especially for the mechanisms and rates of accumulation of large volumes of eruptible magmas that may feed the spectrum of small (>1 km 3 ) to super (>1,000 km 3 ) caldera-forming ignimbrites (Giordano & Cas 2021). ...
... By contrast, the impact of magma withdrawal, which is equally important to define the state of quiescent volcanoes, has been investigated much less. The ephemeral nature of shallow magma storage may complicate the interpretation of monitoring signals and mask the continuation of magmatic activity in the deep parts of the plumbing system, as suggested to occur during repose periods by petrology and thermal modeling (Annen et al. 2006, Cooper & Kent 2014, Weber et al. 2019. ...
Polygenetic volcanoes and calderas produce eruptions of a wide variety of magnitudes, chemistries, and recurrence times. Understanding the interplay between long-and short-term and deep and shallow processes associated with accumulation and transfer of eruptible magma is essential for assessing the potential for future eruptions to occur and estimating their magnitude, which remains one of the foremost challenges in the Earth sciences. We review literature and use existing data for emblematic volcanic systems to identify the essential data sets required to define the state of activity of volcanoes and their plumbing systems. We explore global eruptive records in combination with heat flux and other geological and geophysical data to determine the evolutionary stage of plumbing systems. We define a Volcanic Activity Index applicable to any volcano that provides an estimate of the potential of a system to erupt in the future, which is especially important for long-quiescent volcanoes. Magmatic plumbing systems that feed volcanic activity extend across Earth's crust and are long-lived at depth and ephemeral in their shallowest portions. 231 Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2022.50:231-259. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org Access provided by Universita degli Studi di Roma Tre on 06/01/22. For personal use only. We revise and update the definitions of active, quiescent, and extinct volcanoes based on physical proxies for the architecture, longevity, amount, and distribution of eruptible magma in the crust. We propose a Volcanic Activity Index, which provides a relative measure of the state of activity of a volcano with respect to all other volcanoes in the world. New imaging and monitoring strategies are required to improve our ability to detect lower and middle crust magmatic processes and forecast eruptions and their potential size.
... At the same time, postcaldera volcanism suggests that in some cases the evacuation of such eruptible magma may leave substantial volumes of crystal mush at variable depths in the crust, rheologically able to trap recharge magma and allow caldera resurgence (Marsh 1984, Galetto et al. 2017. In other cases, the shallowest portions of a plumbing system behave as ephemeral (Gualda et al. 2019;Weber et al. 2019Weber et al. , 2020, alternating periods when large magma reservoirs are present in the upper crust and represent a rheological barrier to the ascent of deeply sourced magma and periods where no such large magma reservoirs exist at shallow depths . Thus, the presence or absence of crystal mushes at a few kilometers depth plays an important role in modulating volcanic activity, especially for the mechanisms and rates of accumulation of large volumes of eruptible magmas that may feed the spectrum of small (>1 km 3 ) to super (>1,000 km 3 ) caldera-forming ignimbrites (Giordano & Cas 2021). ...
... By contrast, the impact of magma withdrawal, which is equally important to define the state of quiescent volcanoes, has been investigated much less. The ephemeral nature of shallow magma storage may complicate the interpretation of monitoring signals and mask the continuation of magmatic activity in the deep parts of the plumbing system, as suggested to occur during repose periods by petrology and thermal modeling (Annen et al. 2006, Cooper & Kent 2014, Weber et al. 2019. ...
Polygenetic volcanoes and calderas produce eruptions of a wide variety of magnitudes, chemistries, and recurrence times. Understanding the interplay between long- and short-term and deep and shallow processes associated with accumulation and transfer of eruptible magma is essential for assessing the potential for future eruptions to occur and estimating their magnitude, which remains one of the foremost challenges in the Earth sciences. We review literature and use existing data for emblematic volcanic systems to identify the essential data sets required to define the state of activity of volcanoes and their plumbing systems. We explore global eruptive records in combination with heat flux and other geological and geophysical data to determine the evolutionary stage of plumbing systems. We define a Volcanic Activity Index applicable to any volcano that provides an estimate of the potential of a system to erupt in the future, which is especially important for long-quiescent volcanoes. ▪ Magmatic plumbing systems that feed volcanic activity extend across Earth's crust and are long-lived at depth and ephemeral in their shallowest portions. ▪ We revise and update the definitions of active, quiescent, and extinct volcanoes based on physical proxies for the architecture, longevity, amount, and distribution of eruptible magma in the crust. ▪ We propose a Volcanic Activity Index, which provides a relative measure of the state of activity of a volcano with respect to all other volcanoes in the world. ▪ New imaging and monitoring strategies are required to improve our ability to detect lower and middle crust magmatic processes and forecast eruptions and their potential size.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 50 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... However, the mean prediction from the P(A) for 2 kbar experiments is 2.7 kbar and 4.4 kbar for the 4 kbar experiments. Hence, average (by mean or median) estimates should reasonably indicate whether two different natural samples lie at distinct pressures, an approach advocated by other authors (Putirka 2016;Weber et al. 2019). ...
The physical and chemical properties of magma govern the eruptive style and behaviour of volcanoes. Many of these parameters are linked to the storage pressure (P) and temperature (T) of the erupted magma, and the chemistry of the melt phase (X). However, reliable single-phase thermobarometers (P, T) and chemometers (X) which can recover this information remain elusive. We present a suite of new single-phase amphibole and clinopyroxene thermobarometers and chemometers, calibrated using random forest machine learning. These calibrations are used to track the range of pre-eruptive conditions, over the course of a millennial eruptive cycle, on an island arc volcano (Mount Liamuiga, Saint Kitts, Eastern Caribbean). We unpick the recent history of Mount Liamuiga, a stratovolcano that produces a dacitic eruption from the upper crust (~ 2 kbar) prior to the Lower Mansion Series eruptive sequence. This precedes a systematic increase in the temperature of crystallisation recovered by amphibole and clinopyroxene in the middle to upper crust (1.2 ± 0.5 to 5.6 ± 2.4 kbar), which correlates with a remarkable progression of matrix plagioclase chemistry to a less-evolved (more anorthitic) composition in time. Prediction of melt chemistry (SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, Na2O, K2O, FeO, MgO, TiO2) in equilibrium with clinopyroxene and amphibole delineate a liquid line of descent concordant with measured groundmass and whole rock chemistry. We also show that the regression strategy, as opposed to the abject insensitivity to pressure, has hindered previous calibrations of amphibole-only barometers. By applying our new calibrations, we construct a quantitative picture of the magma plumbing system beneath an arc volcano.
... BCE (whole rock estimated) eruptions record some of the shortest timescales for systems in a similar compositional range, with timescales most similar to Bezymianny and Novarupta, Alaska, which show similarly short timescales. (Davydova et al., 2018;Boudon et al., 2008;Pichavant et al., 2018;Singer et al., 2016;Ruth et al., 2018;Costa et al., 2013;Weber et al., 2019;Chamberlain et al., 2014;Costa and Chakraborty, 2004;Fabbro et al., 2013;Barker et al., 2016;Flaherty et al., 2018;Kilgour et al., 2014;Gamble et al., 1999;Saunders et al., 2014;Fabbro et al., 2013;Bourgeoisat, 2018;Solaro et al., 2020;Sundermeyer et al., 2020). ...
... mineral assemblage is different. The Lower Toluca Pumice is constituted by plagioclase, amphibole, ilmenite, titanomagnetite, and rare biotite and orthopyroxene, while MPII does not contain orthopyroxene (Arce et al., 2013;Weber et al., 2019). Absence of pyroxene in the Malinche Pumice II dacitic magma could be due to high water contents in the melt (Prouteau and Scaillet, 2003). ...
The Malinche Pumice II is a fallout deposit produced by a Plinian-type eruption during the Pleistocene-Holocene at La Malinche volcano. La Malinche (4461 masl) is an active stratocone located in central Mexico, in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt province. It is 26 km to the NE of the City of Puebla and 22 km to the SE of the City of Tlaxcala. The Malinche Pumice II was produced by one of the largest explosive eruptions of this volcano, involving a dacitic magma (63.6–65.3 wt% SiO2, anhydrous basis) with a mineral assemblage of plagioclase + amphibole + FeTi oxides and ± biotite phenocrysts. Larger plagioclase crystals are up to 1.2 mm in diameter, with resorbed margins and complex zoning (An26 to An43), whereas microcrysts are euhedral with homogeneous composition (An42 to An55). Amphibole is mainly magnesio-ferri-hornblende (Mg# = 0.65–0.82) and lesser amounts of pargasite. Geothermometry performed using FeTi oxides yields an average temperature of 873 ± 2 °C and oxygen fugacity of 1.8 units above the NNO buffer. Amphibole geothermobarometry yields a lower temperature (809 ± 19 °C) and a pressure of 230 ± 100 MPa, assuming 4.4 wt% of H2O. Considering an average density of 2650 kg/m³ for the upper crust in central Mexico, the storage region of the Malinche Pumice II dacitic magma was located at 8 ± 2 km depth. Biotite could be antecrystic or xenocrystic in origin, based on its reacted texture, large sizes (0.85–2 mm), and reaction rims. Similarly, pargasite that provides higher temperature estimates (900 ± 18 °C) and low anorthite plagioclase (An26) could also be antecrysts or xenocrysts. The Plinian eruption was likely triggered by an input of a hotter and deeper magma batch that overpressurized the dacitic magma system that eventually provoked vesiculation and fragmentation. The eruption shifted to a hydromagmatic style because of external water's entrainment that decreased the vesicularity of pumice. Our results are in good agreement with recent seismicity recorded at depths of ~7 km probably associated with activity of the Malinche's magmatic system.
... Magmatic minerals crystallised in igneous systems commonly exhibit zoning patterns related to changes in the state of the host magma (Bachmann and Dungan, 2002;Zellmer et al., 2003;Costa and Chakraborty, 2004;Humphreys et al., 2006;Pietranik et al., 2006;Ginibre et al., 2007;Shcherbakov et al., 2011;Druitt et al., 2012;Cashman and Blundy, 2013;Ubide et al., 2015;Bennett et al., 2019;Cao et al., 2019;Weber et al., 2019;Higgins et al., 2021). This is particularly the case in volcanic samples, which can experience multiple magmatic states during their dynamic journey to the surface. ...
Minerals exhibit compositional zoning patterns that can be related to changes in the environment in which they grew. Using statistical methods that have been designed to segment optical images, we have developed a procedure to segment zoned crystals using elemental maps. For a single mineral phase, compositional zones in individual crystals are correlated between multiple crystals. This allows us to quantify the complexity and variability of chemical zoning between different geological samples. Specifically, we employ a simple linear iterative clustering algorithm, which splits the chemical maps into spatially constrained regions of similar chemistry. The result is a texturally segmented crystal, akin to what would be identified by the human eye. To aid the segmentation and correlation of zones, we also introduce a new method to classify multiple mineral phases within a single thin section. This is based on a finite mixture model approach, which proves very effective in removing mixed pixels that will only introduce noise into the segmentation. We provide an example using the mineral phase plagioclase. Using two contemporaneous samples from an eruptive unit on the island of St. Kitts (Eastern Caribbean) we show that a volcanic bomb (∼10 cm) and a scoria clast (∼2 cm) have similar rim compositions but distinctly different core compositions. Our methodology will enable a statistical characterization of 2D complexity of crystals in a variety of different geo-scientific disciplines. This will allow the genesis of different mineral phases to be directly compared.
