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![Properties of diesel, sunflower oil, castor oil, and acetone [38-40]....](profile/Laura-Deblas/publication/342473277/figure/tbl3/AS:906662131015680@1593176505259/Properties-of-diesel-sunflower-oil-castor-oil-and-acetone-38-40-Kinematic-viscosity_Q320.jpg)
The present paper investigates the feasibility of using acetone (ACE) in triple blends with fossil diesel (D) and straight vegetable oils (SVOs) as alternative fuel for diesel engines. In this respect, ACE is selected as an oxygenated additivedue to its favorable propertiesto be mixed with vegetable oils and fossil diesel. In fact, the very low kin...
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Context 1
... mixtures are designated as B20, B40, B60, B80, and B100, where 100% fossil diesel is indicated as B0 and ACE/vegetable oil blend is referred as to B100. For example, B20 is composed of 20% ACE/vegetable oil and 80% diesel, Tables 5 and 6. The components of all blends were manually mixed at room temperature. ...Context 2
... mixtures are designated as B20, B40, B60, B80, and B100, where 100% fossil diesel is indicated as B0 and ACE/vegetable oil blend is referred as to B100. For example, B20 is composed of 20% ACE/vegetable oil and 80% diesel, Tables 5 and 6. The components of all blends were manually mixed at room temperature. ...Citations
... Sunflower oil and castor oil have also been recently evaluated as components of triplediesel mixtures with different LVLC additives in triple D/LVLC/SVO mixtures. Hence, several LVLC solvents have been also investigated, including ethyl acetate [59], diethyl carbonate [60], dimethyl carbonate [61], acetone [62], and even a relatively low-cost mixture, acetone/butanol/ethanol (ABE), which can be derived from renewable resources through typical fermentation processes using cellulose found in various residual biomasses [63]. ABE blends demonstrate favorable physicochemical properties for use as an LVLC in biofuels [64][65][66][67]. ...
... In general, the use of these oxygenated organic compounds as LVLC biofuels in mixtures with SVOs allows for high percentages of diesel to be obtained without seriously compromising the power of the engine, achieving a significant reduction in polluting emissions. Furthermore, the cold flow properties of the fuel mixtures were also improved with these kinds of blends [59][60][61][62][63]. In order to increase the energy performance of triple blends, various investigations have been carried out using a cetane improver such as 2-Ethylhexyl nitrate. ...
... Table 1. The physicochemical properties of the different compounds were taken from the literature [58][59][60][61][62][63], except the density and kinematic viscosity, which were determined experimentally in this research. Flash point, calorific value and cetane number of the plastic oils are reported by [74,83,84]. ...
To provide technical and economical solutions regarding management of plastic waste, which is constantly increasing worldwide, this study addresses the possibility of using plastic oils (PO) obtained from these plastic wastes as biofuels. To this end, the replacement of the fossil diesel employed in internal combustion diesel engines with triple diesel/PO/vegetable oil mixtures has been investigated. Sunflower (SO) and castor oil (CO) mixed with PO in the most appropriate proportion are evaluated as pure vegetable oils (SVO). Thus, diesel/PO/SVO triple blends were prepared, characterized, and then tested on a diesel engine operating as electricity generator, evaluating power output, consumption, and exhaust emissions. The obtained results show that, with the incorporation of relatively small quantities of pure, non-edible vegetable oils, in double mixtures of PO/SO and PO/CO, an effective alternative fuel for transport is obtained, that allows for 100% of fossil diesel to be replaced. In fact, with these double PO/SVO biofuel mixtures, higher engine power values and lower consumption levels are obtained than those achieved with fossil diesel. Regarding exhaust emissions, these are produced with a slightly greater opacity than with fossil diesel, but there are lower values of carbon gases as a whole (CO + CO2) and in NOx gases.
... Low CP cooking oil is also cleaner and healthier to consume. In contrast, bulk cooking oil is considered to be less hygienic (Aguado-Deblas et al., 2020;Panchal et al., 2020). ...
The purpose of this study is to compare packaged and bulk cooking oils. The FTIR test, viscosity, density, acid number, and organoleptic are all used as research methods. With FTIR results on the C-H spectral group of alkanes seen at 1463.78 cm-1 and 1743.63 cm-1, and the tertiary C=O ester group of triglyceride seen at 1743.66 cm-1 and 1743.63 cm-1. It was determined that bulk cooking oil includes more hydrogen and double bonds than packaged cooking oil. Bulk cooking oil viscosity testing with packaging showed that it was between 38 and 37 MPa, had densities of 0.92 and 0.90 gr/ml, and acid numbers of 0.18 and 0.11 mg of potassium hydroxide. Packaged cooking oil has a more appealing aroma than bulk cooking oil, and both have a sticky flavor. Bulk cooking oil is dark, but packaged oil is yellow. According to the study of the test results, bulk cooking oil is of lower quality and has a greater impact than packaged oil.
... The global research on alternative and sustainable energy sources has been sparked by the fact that fossil fuels are running out and that too much carbon dioxide is being released into the atmosphere [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Using petroleum derivatives made from fossil crude oil pollutes the environment by releasing greenhouse gases, which cause serious environmental problems related to global warming [7][8][9][10][11][12]. ...
Due to their high lipid content, microalgae are one of the most significant sources of green
hydrocarbons, which might help lessen the world’s need for fossil fuels. Many zeolite-based catalysts
are quickly deactivated by coke production and have a short lifetime. In this study, a bimetallic
Lanthanum-Cerium (La-Ce)-modified HZSM-5 zeolite catalyst was synthesized through an impregnation
method and was tested for the conversion of hydrolyzed oil into oxygen-free hydrocarbon fuels
of high energy content. Initially, hydrolyzed oil (HO), the byproduct of the transesterification process,
was obtained by the reaction of crude oil derived from Chlorella vulgaris microalgae and a methanol.
Various catalysts were produced, screened, and evaluated for their ability to convert algal HO into
hydrocarbons and other valuable compounds in a batch reactor. The performance of HZSM-5 was
systematically tested in view of La-Ce loaded on conversion, yield, and selectivity. NH3-TPD analysis
showed that the total acidity of the La-Ce-modified zeolites was lower than that of the pure HZSM-5
catalyst. TGA testing revealed that including the rare earth elements La and Ce in the HZSM-5
catalyst lowered the catalyst propensity for producing coke deposits. The acid sites necessary for
algal HO conversion were improved by putting La and Ce into HZSM-5 zeolite at various loading
percentages. The maximum hydrocarbon yield (42.963%), the highest HHV (34.362 MJ/Kg), and the
highest DOD% (62.191%) were all achieved by the (7.5%La-2.5%Ce)/HZSM-5 catalyst, which was
synthesized in this work. For comparison, the hydrocarbon yield for the parent HZSM-5 was 21.838%,
the HHV was (33.230 MJ/Kg), and the DOD% was 44.235%. In conclusion, La and Ce-loading on the
parent HZSM-5 may be responsible for the observed alterations in textural properties; nevertheless,
there is no clear correlation between the physical features and the hydrocarbon yield (%). The principal
effect of La and Ce modifying the parent HZSM-5 zeolite was to modify the acidic sites needed to
enhance the conversion (%) of the algal HO during the catalytic deoxygenation process, which in
turn raised the hydrocarbon yield (%) and increased the HHV and DOD%.
... The global research on alternative and sustainable energy sources has been sparked by the fact that fossil fuels are running out and that too much carbon dioxide is being released into the atmosphere [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Using petroleum derivatives made from fossil crude oil pollutes the environment by releasing greenhouse gases, which cause serious environmental problems related to global warming [7][8][9][10][11][12]. ...
... Exploration into biofuels that can be made from both edible and non-edible biomass and that can be grown in several different ways has recently emerged as a promising avenue for addressing the world's pressing energy needs [1][2][3][4][5][6]. The biggest problem, though, is that it uses up valuable farmland at a time when the world needs to focus on there were somewhat fewer strong Bronsted acid sites, which inhibited coke formation [29]. ...
Despite the extensive research into the catalytic uses of zeolite-based catalysts, these catalysts have a limited useful lifetime because of the deactivating effect of coke production. This study looks at the use of Cerium (Ce) loaded HZSM-5 zeolite catalysts in the hydrocarbon and oxygenated chemical conversion from Chlorella Vulgaris microalgae crude oil. Characterization of structure, morphology, and crystallinity was performed after the catalysts were manufactured using the impregnation technique. Soxhlet extraction was carried out to extract the crude oil of microalgae. Transesterification reaction was used to produce algal hydrolyzed oil (HO), and the resulting HO was put to use in a batch reactor at 300 °C, 1000 rpm, 7 bars of nitrogen pressure, a catalyst to the algal HO ratio of 15% (wt. %), and a retention time of 6 h. To determine which Ce-loaded HZSM-5 catalysts would be most effective in converting algal HO into non-oxygenated molecules (hydrocarbons), we conducted a series of tests. Liquid product characteristics were analyzed for elemental composition, higher heating value (HHV), atomic ratios of O/C and H/C, and degree of deoxygenation (DOD%). Results were categorized into three groups: product yield, chemical composition, and carbon number distribution. When Cerium was added to HZSM-5 zeolite at varying loading percentages, the zeolite’s acid sites became more effective in facilitating the algal HO conversion. The results showed that 10%Ce/HZSM-5 had the greatest conversion of the algal HO, the yield of hydrocarbons, HHV, and DOD% (98.2%, 30%, 34.05 MJ/Kg, and 51.44%, respectively) among all the synthesized catalysts in this research. In conclusion, the physical changes seen in the textural characteristics may be attributed to Cerium-loading on the parent HZSM-5; nevertheless, there is no direct association between the physical features and the hydrocarbons yield (%). The primary impact of Cerium alteration of the parent HZSM-5 zeolite was to change the acidic sites required to boost the conversion (%) of the algal HO in the catalytic deoxygenation process, which in turn increased the hydrocarbons yield (%), which in turn increased the HHV and DOD%.
... Many researchers have looked into the manufacture of biofuels using various forms of edible and inedible biomass and their cultivation in various methods [3][4][5][6][7][8]. Microalgae can tration of 96% from Chem-Lab NV (Zedelgem, Belgium), and sodium hydroxide pellets from Scharlau (Sentmenat, Spain). ...
Microalgae is one of the most important sources of green hydrocarbons because it contains a high percentage of lipids and is likely to reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Several zeolite-based catalysts have a short lifetime due to coke-formation deactivation. In this study, a lanthanum-modified HZSM-5 zeolite catalyst for the conversion of crude oil into non-oxygenated compounds (hydrocarbons) and oxygenated compounds has been investigated. The crude oil of Chlorella Vulgaris microalgae was extracted using Soxhlet and converted into hydrolyzed oil (HO) through a transesterification reaction. The experiments were conducted in a batch reactor (300 °C, 1000 rpm, 7 bar of N2, the catalyst to the algal HO ratio of 15% (wt.%) and 6 h). The results were organized into three groups: product yield, chemical composition, and carbon number distribution. The liquid products were investigated, including their elemental composition, higher heating value (HHV), atomic ratios of O/C and H/C, and degree of deoxygenation (DOD%). The loading of lanthanum into HZSM-5 zeolite with different loading percentages enhanced the acid sites needed for the algal HO conversion. Among all the synthesized catalysts, 10%La/HZSM-5 produced the highest conversion of the algal HO, the highest yield of hydrocarbons, the highest HHV, and the highest DOD%; those were 100%, 36.88%, 34.16 MJ/kg, and 56.11%, respectively. The enhanced catalytic conversion was due to the presence of lanthanum, which alters the active sites for the desired reactions of catalytic deoxygenation. The main effect of the modification of the parent HZSM-5 zeolite with lanthanum led to adjusting the acidic sites needed to increase the conversion (%) of the algal HO in the catalytic deoxygenation process and thus increase the hydrocarbon yield (%), which in turn led to an increase in the HHV and DOD%. The proposed La-based zeolite composite is promising for different energy applications due to its unique benefits compared to other expensive and less-stable catalysts.
... However, the incorporation of DEE in a triple blend with a SVO (diesel/vegetable oil/DEE) allows for a substitution with fossil diesel of up to 40% by volume, not only promoting good results in terms of engine power and emission reductions, but also leading to an improvement in the cold flow behavior of fuel [30]. Many other solvents have also been employed as an LVLC in triple blends with diesel and oil, such as ethyl acetate (EA) [31,32], diethyl carbonate [33], dimethyl carbonate [34], and acetone [35]. In general, a fossil diesel substitution above 40% was obtained, attaining a reduction in pollutant emissions without diminishing the power generated by the engine. ...
... Lee et al. observed similar behavior with the addition of 10 and 20% ABE to diesel [53]. This is explained by the high oxygen content in the biofuels, which promotes the oxidation of C, resulting in a better combustion process [29,[32][33][34][35]. Moreover, the low cetane number in the blends, as well as the higher volatility of ABE in comparison to diesel, promote a higher proportion of fuel burning in the premixed combustion phase, which increases the oxidation of the soot particles [53]. ...
... Our research group reported the effects of adding acetone (ACE) to sunflower or castor oil when using these in blends with diesel in a diesel engine [35]. These results reveal that the blends containing up to 16-18% ACE and 22-24% SVO exhibit an excellent engine performance, producing similar engine power to diesel, with slightly higher fuel consumption and considerable reductions in soot emissions, as well as excellent cold flow properties were also obtained from these triple blends. ...
From a technical and economic point of view, our aim is to provide viable solutions for the replacement of fossil fuels which are currently used in internal combustion diesel engines. In this research, two new biofuels composed of second-generation vegetable oils (SVO),used oil sunflower (SO) or castor oil (CO), and the ABE blend (acetone/butanol/ethanol) were evaluated. ABE is an intermediate product from the fermentation of carbohydrates to obtain bio-butanol. Besides, the ABE blend exhibits suitable properties as biofuel, such asvery low kinematic viscosity, reasonable energy density, low autoignition temperature, and broad flammability limits. Diesel/ABE/SVO triple blends were prepared, characterized and then, tested on a diesel engine, evaluating power output , consumption, and exhaust emissions. The power output was slightly reduced due to the low heating values of ABE blend. Also, engine consumed more fuel with the triple blends than with diesel under low engine loads whereas, at medium and high loads, the fuel consumption was very similar to that of diesel. Regarding exhaust gas emissions, soot wasnotably reduced, and nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO2) emissions were lower or comparable to that of diesel, while the CO emissions increased. The use of these biofuels allows the replacement of high percent-agesof diesel without compromising engine power and achievinga significant reduction in pollution emissions. Furthermore, a notable improvement in cold flow properties of the fuel blends is obtained, in comparison with diesel.
... It can produce stable yields even on marginal lands for being tolerant to water stress, low soil fertility, high soil pH, and arid conditions (Chuah et al., 2016). Exploring the biodiesel potential of castor bean has received less attention from the researchers and policymakers, and the prevalent scenario of severe environmental degradation has made it necessary to explore it as a sustainable source of biofuel production (Aguado-Deblas et al., 2020;Arslan et al., 2020;Osorio-González et al., 2020). ...
... Sulfur is an ingredient of coenzymes, vitamins, biotin, thiamine, and S-glycosides. The reason for higher oil contents and yield with increased level of S in the current study is that S plays a significant role for the production of chlorophyll and is the constituent of cystine, amino acids, methionine, and cystein (Chuah et al., 2016;Aguado-Deblas et al., 2020;Arslan et al., 2020). In the current study, oil yield was significantly and positively correlated with branches per plant, spike per plant, spike dry weight, oil yield, and oil contents of castor (Figure 3). ...
Due to limited conventional energy sources, there is a need to find substitute non-conventional sources of energy to meet the societal demands on a sustainable basis. Crude oil and edible oil remain major import items in Pakistan, the deficit of which can be compensated by using biomass, preferably inedible oilseeds. Therefore, the current study evaluated the role of sulfur (S) fertilization for improving yield (seed and oil) and biodiesel value of castor bean, a potential inedible crop with minimum input requirements. For this purpose, a combined approach of field experimentation and laboratory analysis was conducted to explore the potential of two castor bean cultivars (DS-30 and NIAB Gold) against four S supply rates, namely, 0, 20, 40, and 60 kg S ha–1, in terms of growth, phenology, and yield parameters. Subsequently, the obtained seed samples were analyzed for biodiesel-related parameters in the Bio-analytical Chemistry lab, Punjab Bio-energy Institute, Faisalabad. The incremental S rates increased the seed yield for both cultivars, and the highest yield was recorded at 60 kg S ha–1 for NIAB Gold. For NIAB Gold, the oil content increased by 7% with S fertilization at 60 kg ha–1, and for DS-30, the oil content increased by 6% at 60 kg ha–1. As with incremental S fertilization, the oil yield increased on a hectare basis, and the quantity of biodiesel produced also increased. Importantly, the tested quality parameters of biodiesel, except biodiesel viscosity, were in the ASTM standard range. Overall, it has been concluded that castor bean is a promising and sustainable option for producing biodiesel as it is non-competitive to food crops and requires little input.
... Regarding the results obtained in the engine with a triple blend of diesel/vegetable oil/acetone, in which, acetone is at around 16-18% by volume, a considerable reduction in emissions of air pollutants, as well as a good power engine, were attained. Nevertheless, the fuel consumption was slightly higher than with fossil diesel [389]. Acetone has also been described as a fuel additive in biodiesel-diesel blends [390]. ...
Many countries are immersed in several strategies to reduce the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of internal combustion engines. One option is the substitution of these engines by electric and/or hydrogen engines. However, apart from the strategic and logistical difficulties associated with this change, the application of electric or hydrogen engines in heavy transport, e.g., trucks, shipping, and aircrafts, also presents technological difficulties in the short-medium term. In addition, the replacement of the current car fleet will take decades. This is why the use of biofuels is presented as the only viable alternative to diminishing CO2 emissions in the very near future. Nowadays, it is assumed that vegetable oils will be the main raw material for replacing fossil fuels in diesel engines. In this context, it has also been assumed that the reduction in the viscosity of straight vegetable oils (SVO) must be performed through a transesterification reaction with methanol in order to obtain the mixture of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) that constitute biodiesel. Nevertheless, the complexity in the industrial production of this biofuel, mainly due to the costs of eliminating the glycerol produced, has caused a significant delay in the energy transition. For this reason, several advanced biofuels that avoid the glycerol production and exhibit similar properties to fossil diesel have been developed. In this way, “green diesels” have emerged as products of different processes, such as the cracking or pyrolysis of vegetable oil, as well as catalytic (hydro)cracking. In addition, some biodiesel-like biofuels, such as Gliperol (DMC-Biod) or Ecodiesel, as well as straight vegetable oils, in blends with plant-based sources with low viscosity have been described as renewable biofuels capable of performing in combustion ignition engines. After evaluating the research carried out in the last decades, it can be concluded that green diesel and biodiesel-like biofuels could constitute the main alternative to addressing the energy transition, although green diesel will be the principal option in aviation fuel.
... Furthermore, in order to increase the economic sustainability of the process, the use of microbial oil, without the transesterification step, in triple blends with organic solvents and fossil diesel as alternative fuel for diesel engines could be analyzed in a future work. This strategy allows the improvement of the fuel properties of triglycerides, and it has actually been analyzed only with vegetable oils [80,81]. ...
Today one of the most interesting ways to produce biodiesel is based on the use of oleaginous microorganisms, which can accumulate microbial oil with a composition similar to vegetable oils. In this paper, we present a thermo-chemical numerical model of the yeast biodiesel production process, considering cardoon stalks as raw material. The simulation is performed subdividing the process into the following sections: steam explosion pre-treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, lipid production, lipid extraction, and alkali-catalyzed transesterification. Numerical results show that 406.4 t of biodiesel can be produced starting from 10,000 t of lignocellulosic biomass. An economic analysis indicates a biodiesel production cost of 12.8 USD/kg, thus suggesting the need to increase the capacity plant and the lipid yield to make the project economically attractive. In this regard, a sensitivity analysis is also performed considering an ideal lipid yield of 22% and 100,000 t of lignocellulosic biomass. The biodiesel production costs related to these new scenarios are 7.88 and 5.91 USD/kg, respectively. The large capacity plant combined with a great lipid yield in the fermentation stage shows a biodiesel production cost of 3.63 USD/kg making the product competitive on the current market of biofuels by microbial oil.
