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Die photograph of the 2.3 2 2.2-mm CMOS chip with the onchip switch network to multiplex among 4 2 4 top metal contacts, which can connect the post-CMOS gold electrode through the overglass openings.
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Protein-based bioelectrochemical interfaces offer great potential for rapid detection, continuous use, and miniaturized sensor arrays. This paper introduces a microsystem platform that enables multiple bioelectrochemical interfaces to be interrogated simultaneously by an onchip amperometric readout system. A post-complementary metal-oxide semicondu...
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... amperometric readout circuit was fabricated in a 0.5 m CMOS process. Fig. 8 shows the 2.3 2.2-mm die with cir- cuit blocks labeled. This version of the chip facilitates a 4 4 array of 100-m working electrodes, although the circuit and post-CMOS process can be scaled to much higher density, cov- ering the entire surface of the chip. With existing techniques and equipment, the array density is ultimately limited ...
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Citations
... In [43], [44], a small range of glucose concentration with a larger power dissipation was discussed. According to [45], [46], [47] and [48], the small range of sensor current detection requires a high power supply. ...
For glucose electrochemical sensors, a comprehensive electronics interface is designed and constructed in 0.18 um, CMOS process technology, and 1.5 V supply voltage. This interface includes a programmable readout amplifier and bandgap reference voltage potentiostat circuit. The programmable transimpedance amplifier (PTIA), the proposed readout circuit, provides a large dynamic range and low noise. The overall transimpedance increase for the PTIA is 17.3-50.5 kohm. For an input current range of 4.2-180 uA, the PTIA response has a linear output voltage range of 0.55-1.44 V. The output rms noise value is calculated to be 5.101 Vrms, and the overall power consumption of the design is 2.33 mW. The THD percentage spans from 7.6 to 10.2 in the current range mentioned above. All bandgap reference voltage potentiostat measurements are made using the reference potential of 0.6 V. The working electrode was a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) loaded with a CuO/Cu0:76CO2:25O4 (copper cobaltite) coating. An electrochemical glucose sensing setup has been used to measure glucose concentrations between 1 and 10 mM, and an emulated circuit has been used to verify the viability of the proposed glucose sensing design. The suggested glucose sensor architecture has a total size of 0.0684 mm2.
... The DC offset noise usually causes problems such as saturation of the readout circuit. In order to eliminate the offset error, a correlated double sampling (CDS) circuits has been applied to the capacitive feedback readout circuit [60]. CDS circuits can also reduce 1/f noise. ...
... Correlated double sampling (CDS) technique (adapted from[60]). ...
Electrochemical detection is widely used in biosensing fields such as medical diagnosis and health monitoring due to its real-time response and high accuracy. Both passive and active electrodes and the corresponding readout circuits have been continuously improved over the past decades. This paper summarizes the redox reaction method, state-of-the-art electrode materials and readout circuits based on passive three-electrode. The redox current-based readout circuits are widely used and developed toward multi-channel high precision and low power consumption. In terms of active electrodes, this paper reviews the development of field-effect transistors (FETs)-based electrochemical detection and readout circuits. In the past decade, the development of organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) have also enabled more precise electrochemical detection.
... With a slower sample rate, a single ADC per array is more appropriate for the entire array. The 4×4 electrode array presented by Yang et al. (2009) has only one potentiostat and one ADC for the entire array and thus the sample rate of the entire array is relatively long compared to the previously proposed column based or pixel based processing sensors. The array configuration is shown in Figure 4b. ...
... Column ADCs are used in this sensor to convert each cell's output voltage to digital(Jiang et al. 2018). (b) A block diagram of a passive electrochemical sensor array where each cell consists of only the sensing electrode(Yang et al. 2009). An example of an in-pixel-ADC array design(Levine et al. 2008). ...
Purpose Nanopore-based molecular sensing and measurement, specifically Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequencing, is advancing at a fast pace. Some embodiments have matured from coarse particle counters to enabling full human genome assembly. This evolution has been powered not only by improvements in the sensors themselves, but also in the assisting microelectronic Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) readout circuitry closely interfaced to them. In this light, this paper reviews established and emerging nanopore-based sensing modalities considered for DNA sequencing and CMOS microelectronic methods currently being used. Design/methodology/approach Readout and amplifier circuits which are potentially appropriate for conditioning and conversion of nanopore signals for downstream processing are studied. Furthermore, arrayed CMOS readout implementations are focused on and the relevant status of the nanopore sensor technology is reviewed as well. Findings Ion channel nanopore devices have properties unique compared with other electrochemical cells. Currently biological nanopores are the only variants reported which can be used for actual DNA sequencing. The translocation rate of DNA through such pores, the current range at which these cells operate on and the cell capacitance effect, all impose the necessity of using low noise circuits in the process of signal detection. The requirement of using in-pixel low noise circuits in turn tends to impose challenges in the implementation of large size arrays. Originality/value The study presents an overview on the readout circuits used for signal acquisition in electrochemical cell arrays and investigates the specific requirements necessary for implementation of nanopore type electrochemical cell amplifiers and their associated readout electronics.
... Biosensors require very high sensitive readout circuitry because of its small size and low-power requirements. As demonstrated in this work, the transimpedance amplifier (TIA) is used for biosensing applications, such as amperometric based blood glucose monitoring system for wearable devices [5][6][7][8][9]. ...
... Input impedance (Z inOL ) of the open-loop MSCCS amplifier is given by Eq. (6). ...
In this paper, the design of low-noise, low-power transimpedance amplifier (TIA) is presented for a miniaturized amperometric based continuous blood glucose monitoring system for wearable devices. The proposed multi-stage cascode common source transimpedance amplifier circuit is designed and implemented in a 180 nm CMOS technology. It has been demonstrated that the proposed TIA shows a significant increase in transimpedance gain, 1.72 GΩ with a bandwidth of 180 kHz and input referred current noise is 18 fA/√Hz for an input current of 200 pA. The total power consumption is 52 μW with a 1.4 V supply and occupies a chip area of 110 μm × 140 μm.
... 4 The recent development of low-cost, highly sensitive, and highly stable electrochemical glucose biosensors has been given much attention due to promising results for point-of-care diagnoses and accurate monitoring of blood glucose levels in diabetic patients. [5][6][7] One important aspect in the fabrication of glucose sensors is the capability of keeping the glucose oxidase (GO x ) enzyme on the surface of the electrode to electrochemically detect the active species. [8][9][10] This has been accomplished by the use of suitable nanostructures for the immobilization of the enzyme. ...
Biosensing has capitalized on the excellent characteristics and properties of nanostructures for detecting glucose levels in diabetic patients. In glucose sensing systems, the fabrication of a suitable matrix for immobilizing glucose oxidase (GO x ) has become more interesting for the application of nanofibers in enzymatic electrochemical biosensors. These nanofiber based electrochemical biosensors are superior in manufacturability and performance due to low cost, diversity of materials, ease of miniaturization, response time, durability, and structure versatility. This perspective highlights the latest material integration of various nanofibrous composite membranes of carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, conductive nanoparticles and conductive polymers, that provide large matrix-like, porous surfaces to enhance the immobilization of enzymes, for the fabrication of glucose biosensors.
... Potential control is done externally. A complete system with 16 electrodes, a single potential controller and a single, multiplexed readout TIA was proposed by [128]. In [129], the readout circuitry was upscaled to handle EIS experiments up to 10 MHz for 100 channels. ...
... Potential control and mixed-signal circuitry are again done externally. The number of electrodes of [128] was upscaled first to 64 by [130] and later to 192 by [131,132] together with a current-to-frequency output stage. On-chip stimulation stimulation pattern generation was added by [133] and extended by [134]. ...
... The combined drive and sensing circuitry with 16× multiplexed channels, i.e. a "group", is duplicated 8× and combined with a shared 8-channel mixedsignal interface and a single digital microcontroller 4 resulting in a 128-channel potentiostat. For this number of channels (128), and the given T on = 96 µs, each individual channel operates at 651 Hz. ...
... CMOS instrumentation for electrochemical biosensors has received wide attention in the last decade as it supports the development of complex miniaturized sensing platforms that can readily interface with disposable sensors and be operated remotely [1]. Since their introduction in 1987 [2], CMOS potentiostats have been developed for numerous applications, including biosensors [3], neurotransmitter sensing [4], glucose monitoring [5] and protein and DNA sensor arrays [6]. ...
Wireless biosensors are playing a pivotal role in health monitoring, disease detection and management. The development of wireless biosensor nodes and networks strongly relies on the design of novel low-power, low-cost and flexible CMOS sensor readouts. This paper presents a CMOS potentiostat that integrates a control amplifier, a dual-slope ADC and a wireless unit on the same chip. It implements a novel time-based readout scheme, whereby the counter of the dual-slope ADC is moved to the receiver and the sensor current is encoded in the timing between two wireless pulses transmitted via pulse-harmonic modulation across an inductive link. Measured results show that the potentiostat chip can resolve a minimum input current of 10pA at a sampling frequency of 125 Hz and a power consumption of 12 μW.
... To integrate metal elements with Ormocomp microchannels, case-specific processes were developed for each of Pt, Au, silver (Ag), and aluminum (Al) by using Cr (for Al and Pt) or Ti (for Au and Ag) as the adhesion layers on the basis of prior literature [21][22][23][24]. The adhesion layer was first deposited on top of the microchannels by evaporation (Ti, 5 nm, IM-9912 evaporator, Instrumentti Mattila, Mynämäki, Finland) or sputtering (Cr, 17 nm, PlasmaLab 400, Oxford Instruments, Bristol, UK) ( Figure 1D). ...
Organically modified ceramic polymers (ORMOCERs) have attracted substantial interest in biomicrofluidic applications owing to their inherent biocompatibility and high optical transparency even in the near-ultraviolet (UV) range. However, the processes for metallization of ORMOCERs as well as for sealing of metallized surfaces have not been fully developed. In this study, we developed metallization processes for a commercial ORMOCER formulation, Ormocomp, covering several commonly used metals, including aluminum, silver, gold, and platinum. The obtained metallizations were systematically characterized with respect to adhesion (with and without adhesion layers), resistivity, and stability during use (in electrochemical assays). In addition to metal adhesion, the possibility for Ormocomp bonding over each metal as well as sufficient step coverage to guarantee conductivity over topographical features (e.g., over microchannel edges) was addressed with a view to the implementation of not only planar, but also three-dimensional on-chip sensing elements. The feasibility of the developed metallization for implementation of microfluidic electrochemical assays was demonstrated by fabricating an electrophoresis separation chip, compatible with a commercial bipotentiostat, and incorporating integrated working, reference, and auxiliary electrodes for amperometric detection of an electrochemically active pharmaceutical, acetaminophen.
... Introduction: The electrochemical detecting system is one of the bioelectronics systems to detect liquid characteristic. Electrochemical sensing widely uses the amperometric electrochemical circuit with the current-input analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) method [1][2][3][4][5][6]. ...
This Letter presents a fully integrated bio-system with the property of high sensitivity for electrochemical detection, which can intrinsically measure electrochemical characteristics with cyclic voltammetry. In normal circumstances, ultra-low electrolytes exist in tissue solution, which is difficult to accurately detect the oxidation/reduction signals, limited by the innate circuit and liquid noise. Hence, the conventional topology of the potentiostat circuit is improved and proposed in this Letter to remove the required analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). The overall operational mechanism of the potentiostat behaves like a single-slope ADC, which achieves a compact, easily implemented, and low-noise design. Additionally, the effective capacitance of potentiostat and liquid resistance make an RC integration to further suppress out-of-band noise, thereby enabling the low-electrolyte detection and improving detecting sensitivity. To simulate the low-electrolyte environment, only 0.01 M (M = mol/l) phosphate buffered saline background solution is used and required to demonstrate its feasibility of the concept. The measured results show the sensor chip with high sensitivity to sense resistive variation of electrochemical action in low electrolytes.
... The use of a capacitive element allows the I-to-V interface to reduce area occupation, and to benefit from better linearity and less PVT variations with respect to resistive elements. However, a sustained current would soon drive to saturation the integrator so some sort of reset strategy is needed [141][142][143][144][145][146][147]. ...
... A classic SC reset mechanism that also performs CDS is shown in Figure 13 [142,143,147]. The scheme in (a) features a PGA built around A 3 , whose (inverting) gain is set by C 1 /C 2 . ...
Smart wearables, among immediate future IoT devices, are creating a huge and fast growing market that will encompass all of the next decade by merging the user with the Cloud in a easy and natural way. Biological fluids, such as sweat, tears, saliva and urine offer the possibility to access molecular-level dynamics of the body in a non-invasive way and in real time, disclosing a wide range of applications: from sports tracking to military enhancement, from healthcare to safety at work, from body hacking to augmented social interactions. The term Internet of Wearables (IoW) is coined here to describe IoT devices composed by flexible smart transducers conformed around the human body and able to communicate wirelessly. In addition the biochemical transducer, an IoW-ready sensor must include a paired electronic interface, which should implement specific stimulation/acquisition cycles while being extremely compact and drain power in the microwatts range. Development of an effective readout interface is a key element for the success of an IoW device and application. This review focuses on the latest efforts in the field of Complementary Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor (CMOS) interfaces for electrochemical sensors, and analyses them under the light of the challenges of the IoW: cost, portability, integrability and connectivity.
