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| Device attachment to sea bream operculum. (A) RapID tag is attached to fish operculum with the tag piercing tool. The external side of the tag (B) allows fixation with adhesive of a 3D-printed pocket. (C) Internal side of attached sea bream operculum. (D) Sea bream with an attachment with the RapiID tag and 3D pocket procedure.
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Integration of technological solutions aims to improve accuracy, precision and repeatability in farming operations, and biosensor devices are increasingly used for understanding basic biology during livestock production. The aim of this study was to design and validate a miniaturized tri-axial accelerometer for non-invasive monitoring of farmed fis...
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... Thus, small and light devices working in standalone mode appear especially suitable for quickly tracking challenged fish at specific time windows, allowing farmers and breeders to orientate selective breeding towards more robust and efficient fish or improve culture conditions for a more sustainable and ethical production. These are the criteria used within the AQUAEXCEL 2020 EU project for the design of AEFishBIT, a patented (P201830305), stand-alone, small and light (1 g) motion embedded-microsystem based in a tri-axial accelerometer that is externally attached to the operculum to monitor physical activity by mapping accelerations in x-and y-axes, while operculum beats (z-axis) serve as a measurement of respiratory frequency (Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019). The accuracy of on-board algorithms was calibrated in swim metabolic chambers, and accelerometer outputs of exercised gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) juveniles correlated with data on swimming speed and oxygen consumption. ...
... Data from exercised juveniles of gilthead sea bream (n = 18) and European sea bass (n = 15) in a swim tunnel respirometer (Loligo® Systems, Viborg, Denmark) were retrieved from Martos-Sitcha et al. (2019) for raw data analyses. Briefly, fish were exercised at three increasing speeds (1, 2 and 3 BL/s) lasting 5 min each consecutive period. ...
... Therefore, as reviewed by Davison and Herbert (2013) variations in swimming performance and behavior are of relevance to move towards a more precise and sustainable aquaculture production, although models of fish bioenergetics in swimming metabolic chambers are sometimes not easy to extrapolate to natural or rearing conditions. Indeed, metabolic rates of fish are different when they are moving in linear or nonlinear mode (Steinhausen et al., 2010), and interestingly we have observed that jerk accelerations of free-swimming fish at routine speed are apparently higher than those found for forced exercised fish in swim metabolic chambers (Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019). Besides, in-depth analysis of accelerometer records (raw data analysis) also provides valuable information about the amplitude and frequency of the operculum and body tail movements, helping to better phenotype the interspecies differences in locomotor capabilities (see below). ...
The AEFishBIT tri-axial accelerometer was externally attached to the operculum to assess the divergent activity and respiratory patterns of two marine farmed fish, the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax). Analysis of raw data from exercised fish highlighted the large amplitude of operculum aperture and body tail movements in European sea bass, which were overall more stable at low-medium exercise intensity levels. Cosinor analysis in free-swimming fish (on-board data processing) highlighted a pronounced daily rhythmicity of locomotor activity and respiratory frequency in both gilthead sea bream and European sea bass. Acrophases of activity and respiration were coupled in gilthead sea bream, acting feeding time (once daily at 11:00 h) as a main synchronizing factor. By contrast, locomotor activity and respiratory frequency were out of phase in European sea bass with activity acrophase on early morning and respiration acrophase on the afternoon. The daily range of activity and respiration variation was also higher in European sea bass, probably as part of the adaptation of this fish species to act as a fast swimming predator. In any case, lower locomotor activity and enhanced respiration were associated with larger body weight in both fish species. This agrees with the notion that selection for fast growth in farming conditions is accompanied by a lower activity profile, which may favor an efficient feed conversion for growth purposes. Therefore, the use of behavioral monitoring is becoming a reliable and large-scale promising tool for selecting more efficient farmed fish, allowing researchers and farmers to establish stricter criteria of welfare for more sustainable and ethical fish production.
... In addition to acceleration, loggers can measure heart rate, although the size of the logger with the combined sensor allows use only on larger fish (>400 g), and the loggers need to be retrieved for the purpose of data collection. On an experimental scale, sensors have been developed and applied to measure respiration [25], blood glucose [26,27], and to calculate blood oxygen saturation [28]. Collection of such physiological parameters allows mapping of the energy economy of free-swimming fish, which could help with filling biological knowledge gaps, determining the impacts of climate change and contributing to precision farming. ...
The yellowtail kingfish is a highly active and fast-growing marine fish with promising potential for aquaculture. In this study, essential insights were gained into the energy economy of this species by heart rate and acceleration logging during a swim-fitness test and a subsequent stress challenge test. Oxygen consumption values of the 600–800 g fish, when swimming in the range of 0.2 up to 1 m·s−1, were high—between 550 and 800 mg·kg−1·h−1—and the heart rate values—up to 228 bpm—were even among the highest ever measured for fishes. When swimming at these increasing speeds, their heart rate increased from 126 up to 162 bpm, and acceleration increased from 11 up to 26 milli-g. When exposed to four sequential steps of increasing stress load, the decreasing peaks of acceleration (baseline values of 12 to peaks of 26, 19 and 15 milli-g) indicated anticipatory behavior, but the heart rate increases (110 up to 138–144 bpm) remained similar. During the fourth step, when fish were also chased, peaking values of 186 bpm and 44 milli-g were measured. Oxygen consumption and heart rate increased with swimming speed and was well reflected by increases in tail beat and head width frequencies. Only when swimming steadily near the optimal swimming speed were these parameters strongly correlated.
... The devices were programmed for data acquisition of physical activity and respiratory frequency during 2 min every 15 min along two consecutive days, in which fish remained unfed. The sampling frequency of the AEFishBIT device was 100 Hz, and the software pre-processing of raw data was made as described elsewhere (Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019b;Ferrer et al., 2020). At the end of the recording period (48 h post-tagging), all AEFishBIT devices were successfully recovered and preprocessed data were downloaded for tracking the recorded behavioral traits. ...
The study combined the use of biometric, behavioral, physiological and external tissue damage scoring systems to better understand how high stocking densities drive schooling behavior and other adaptive features during the finishing growing phase of farmed gilthead sea bream in the Western Mediterranean. Fish were grown at three different final stocking densities (LD, 8.5 kg/m ³ ; MD, 17 kg/m ³ ; HD, 25 kg/m ³ ). Water oxygen concentration varied between 5 and 6 ppm in LD fish to 3–4 ppm in HD fish with the summer rise of water temperature from 19°C to 26°C (May–July). HD fish showed a reduction of feed intake and growth rates, but they also showed a reinforced social cohesion with a well-defined endogenous swimming activity rhythm with feeding time as a main synchronization factor. The monitored decrease of the breathing/swimming activity ratio by means of the AEFishBIT data-logger also indicated a decreased energy partitioning for growth in the HD environment with a limited oxygen availability. Plasma glucose and cortisol levels increased with the rise of stocking density, and the close association of glycaemia with the expression level of antioxidant enzymes ( mn-sod, gpx4, prdx5 ) in liver and molecular chaperones ( grp170, grp75 ) in skeletal muscle highlighted the involvement of glucose in redox processes via rerouting in the pentose-phosphate-pathway. Other adaptive features included the depletion of oxidative metabolism that favored lipid storage rather than fatty acid oxidation to decrease the oxygen demand as last electron acceptor in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. This was coincident with the metabolic readjustment of the Gh/Igf endocrine-growth cascade that promoted the regulation of muscle growth at the local level rather than a systemic action via the liver Gh/Igf axis. Moreover, correlation analyses within HD fish displayed negative correlations of hepatic transcripts of igf1 and igf2 with the data-logger measurements of activity and respiration, whereas the opposite was found for muscle igf2, ghr1 and ghr2 . This was indicative of a growth-regulatory transition that supported a proactive instead of a reactive behavior in HD fish, which was considered adaptive to preserve an active and synchronized feeding behavior with a minimized risk of oxidative stress and epidermal skin damage.
... Most aquatic respiratory fi sh species hyperventilate as a response to hypoxia, although the oxygen level threshold for a hyperventilatory response is very species-specifi c (PERRY et al. 2009). MARTOS-SITCHA et al. (2019) andFERRER et al. (2020) observed a close relationship between oxygen consumption and opercular moving frequency in sea bream and sea bass after exposure to different physical activities. In both cases, increased opercular muscle activity then results in an increased mechanical loading at the insertion sites, and an increased load can be expected all over the operculum, as it pushes against the water. ...
... Smaller individuals such as fi sh larvae could also be monitored through macroscopic close-up observations. Small electronic sensors such as miniaturized accelerometers attached to the opercula, have been used before to monitor the respiratory frequency in larger fi sh (MARTOS-SITCHA et al. 2019). ...
Fish aquaculture is frequently confronted with skeletal abnormalities. In gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata (Linnaeus, 1758)), opercular deformities are one of the most common types of deformities. Many studies point at potential causal factors, mainly genetic or nutritional. However, no clear consensus has surfaced yet, and other factors known to affect bone formation remain unexplored, including mechanical stressors by external forces or muscle contraction. In this study, we investigated whether an altered mechanical use of the gill cover could be associated with opercular deformities, by inducing a change in the respiratory rate and thus gill ventilation. Juvenile seabreams were reared under 80, 100 or 200% dissolved oxygen (DO) to trigger altered respiration behaviour, and the effect on body and opercular shape was analysed. The main hypothesis was that hypoxic conditions would increase opercular ventilation, which would result in a higher prevalence of opercular deformities. The results show that the hypoxic condition (80% DO) did not trigger a significantly higher prevalence of opercular deformations, though the opposite is true for the hyperoxic condition (200% DO). No effect of oxygen treatment was observed on overall body shape, though deformed opercles showed a pronounced, but non-significant difference in shape across treatments. Morphometric results and µCT scans reveal that deformations mainly occur in the dorsocaudal region of the opercular bone. Although no causal link could be demonstrated, we discuss how these results can indirectly suggest that an altered mechanical loading on the operculum could explain its deformation.
... Although placing a device on or in the fish is considerably more invasive than the other methods, this also enables the measurement of properties difficult to measure remotely, such as physiological parameters (e.g., Cooke et al., 2004), and enables the collection of individual data histories over time. The list of parameters that have been measured using such devices include depth (e.g., Block et al., 1992), acceleration (e.g., Kawabe et al., 2003), muscle activity (e.g., Cooke et al., 2004), heart rate (e.g., Priede, 1983), and respiration (e.g., Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019). Biosensors and telemetry have seen a range of applications in aquaculture research including monitoring during crowding and transportation procedures (Brijs et al., 2018;Føre et al., 2018a, b), welfare evaluations (Hvas et al., 2020;Svendsen et al., 2021), and environmental responses . ...
Pig farming systems face an increasingly diversified challenge to consider simultaneously the economic, environmental, and social pillars of sustain ability. For animal nutrition, this requires the development of smart feeding strategies able to integrate these different dimensions in a dynamic way and to be adapted as much as possible to each individual animal. These developments can be supported by digital technologies including data collection and processing, decision making and automation of applications. Classical traits such as feed intake and growth benefit from new technologies that can be measured more frequently. New sensors can be indicative for other traits related to body composition, physiological status, activity, feed efficiency, or rearing environment. A challenge for data collection is to obtain information on a large number of animals and with sufficient frequency, quality, and precision and use it cost-effectively. Another challenge is to analyse the ever-increasing volume of data and use it in decision-making. Nutritional models for pigs and sows, classically mechanistic, have to evolve to integrate real-time data. With the development of data-driven modelling methods (e.g., machine-learning or deep-learning), a synergy between mechanistic models and data-driven approaches is required in smart pig nutrition. Moreover, the practical application of smart pig nutrition must consider the evolution in pig farming systems towards increased diversity in terms of size, space allowance, and outdoor access, and return on investment. Finally, the transition of pig nutrition in the digital era must consider the social acceptance of an increasing role of digital technologies in animal production systems.KeywordsActivityArtificial intelligenceAutomatonConcept-driven modellingData collectionData-driven modellingData processingDecision support systemFattening pigsFeed efficiencyFeed intakeGestating sowHealth statusLactating sowMineralNutritionNutritional requirementsPerformancePhysiological statusPig farming systemPrecision feedingRearing environmentSensors
... In gilthead sea bream, the most efficient fish indeed tend to have less visceral fat (Besson et al., 2022), but further studies are needed to fully understand the physiological processes driving changes in FCR, and also how performance differences can be associated with a given behavioural and transcriptional trait. To achieve this goal, fish behaviour of group-housed sea bream from the study of Besson et al. (2022) were monitored using a smart small biologger (AEFishBIT) attached to the operculum for the simultaneous monitoring of physical activity and ventilation rates (Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019b). The usefulness of this device for the welfare assessment has been proven in gilthead sea bream, European sea bass and Atlantic salmon, bridging different activity and behaviour patterns with genetically-and environmentally-mediated changes in fish performance and welfare (Ferrer et al., 2020;Kolarevic et al., 2021;Perera et al., 2021;Rosell-Moll et al., 2021). ...
... It is a small and light (14x7x7 mm; 1.1 g) sensor composed of a tri-axial accelerometer, a microprocessor, a battery and a RFID that is designed to be externally attached to fish operculum. This unique location serves to provide simultaneous measurements of activity patterns (signals of x-and y-axes) and respiratory frequency (z-axis signal) processed by on-board algorithms (Ferrer et al., 2020;Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019b). ...
Feed conversion ratio (FCR) is an important trait to target in fish breeding programs, and the aim of the present study is to underline how the genetic improvement of FCR in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) drives to changes in transcriptional and behavioural patterns. Groups of fish with high (FCR+) and low (FCR-) individual FCR were established at the juvenile stage (161–315 dph) by rearing isolated fish on a restricted ration. Fish were then grouped on the basis of their individual FCR and they grew up until behavioural monitoring and gene expression analyses were done at 420 dph. The AEFishBIT datalogger (externally attached to operculum) was used for simultaneous measurements of physical activity and ventilation rates. This allowed discrimination of FCR+ and FCR- groups according to their different behaviour and energy partitioning for growth and locomotor activity. Gene expression profiling of liver and white muscle was made using customized PCR-arrays of 44 and 29 genes, respectively. Up to 15 genes were differentially expressed in liver and muscle tissues highlighting a different metabolic scope of FCR+ and FCR- fish. Hepatic gene expression profile of FCR- fish displayed a lower lipogenic activity that was concurrent with a down-regulation of markers of mitochondrial activity and oxidative stress, as well as a reallocation of body fat depots with an enhanced flux of lipids towards skeletal muscle. Muscle gene expression profile of FCR- fish matched with stimulatory and inhibitory growth signals, and an activation of energy sensors and antioxidant defence as part of the operating mechanisms for a more efficient muscle growth. These new insights contribute to phenotype the genetically mediated differences in fish FCR thanks to the combination of transcriptomic and behavioural approaches that contribute to better understand the mechanisms involved in a reliable FCR improvement of farmed gilthead sea bream.
... AI is going to impact businesses of all shapes and sizes across all industries (Marr, 2020). The increasing use of centralized computer-controlled feeding systems and in-cage/in-pond sensors and cameras will increasingly make an internet-of-things system of control more feasible for feeding aquaculture species (Måløy et al., 2019;Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019;Mustapha et al., 2021). The development of complex algorithms and AI that monitors feeding behavior will be used to help make decisions about feeding management (Jones et al., 2012;Zhou et al., 2018). ...
Abstract Over the past 20 years, substantial progress has been made in improving feeds and feeding technologies for most aquaculture species. Notable improvements in feed conversion efficiency (through a better understanding of requirements and improved feed management) and ingredient sustainability (through increased capability to use a wider range of ingredients) have been achieved. While advances have been made in understanding the requirements of many of the main aquaculture species, there is still much to be done in defining requirements, especially for many of the species being farmed in the developing world. Gains in the efficiency of feeds are slowing for developed species, but potential gains are still appreciable for less developed species. There is a growing need to more precisely prescribe the required levels of essential nutrients and various additives in the diet based on age, genotype, environment, and immune status to deliver a “precision nutrition” approach to farming aquaculture species. There is still further need to diversify our ingredient options to provide greater resilience, as the sustainability of different feed ingredient sources, including possible climate change impacts, is becoming a growing issue. There is a growing demand for biocircularity in our feed ingredient supply chains. Ultimately, what is needed to sustain future feed ingredient needs are sustainable sources of cost‐effective protein, some essential amino acid additives, some omega‐3 fatty acid resources, and various minerals and vitamin additives. The increasing use of new and varied resources will ensure that food safety remains an important issue throughout the world. Feed manufacturing has evolved from a simplistic exercise to a highly complex science with state‐of‐the‐art engineering, but its application is not consistent across all sectors, as there is still widespread use of pelleting, mash, and trash fish feeding in the developing world. Similarly, feed management has also dichotomized between the developed and developing world, with a high reliance on manual skilled labor in the developing world, whereas more advanced aquaculture systems are becoming increasingly reliant on automated computer‐controlled feeding systems.
... [141]. On the other hand, many researchers exploit simultaneous methods aimed at biochemical/physiological signals and species behaviour monitoring [142][143][144]. For instance, Youssef et al. reported a microfluidic electric egg-laying assay that studied multiple worms in parallel and further proved its feasibility for MP toxicity research through the analysis of electric egg-laying behaviour, size, and neurodegeneration within one chip (Fig. 8E) [145]. ...
Recently, waterborne microplastics (MP) has raised significant public concerns. Therefore, a sensitive and macroscopic indicator is needed for the management and risk prediction of MP. Although MP-induced behavioural anomalies in aquatic species have been widely publicized, less attention has been given to the potential use of behavioural tests as bioindicators for MP ecotoxicity evaluations. This review summarizes the MP-induced behavioural anomalies and the possible affecting mechanisms, indicating that behaviours can provide sensitive and multifaceted revelations for biotoxicity evaluation. In addition, as technical advancements in computer vision, acoustic technology, and sensors have renovated conventional monitoring methods, their potential applications in behavioural monitoring of aquatic organisms in response to MP have been discussed, with the innovation trends of miniaturized devices, precise analysis, and multifunctional outputs highlighted. Challenges and prospects regarding behavioural investigations in future MP toxicity studies are also summarized. In conclusion, behaviour can be a potential bioindicator for MP toxicity analysis.
... AEFishBIT battery is rechargeable and it can be re-used several times with reprogrammable data sampling schedules. This device has been tested in European sea bass and more extensively in gilthead sea bream under a wide range of experimental conditions (Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019b;Ferrer et al., 2020;Rosell-Moll et al., 2021). It has thereby a Technology Readiness Level (TLR) higher than 7, and current studies in rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon have proven its potential in other farmed fish using species-specific procedures for the device operculum tagging (see below). ...
... Similarly, the time derivation of the acceleration will be the jerk and the jerk derivation the snap of the fish. These principles were taken into account for the design and use of the low power AEFishBIT device, a tri-axial accelerometer intended to be attached to the operculum of small fish for data recording at a sampling frequency of 100 and 50 Hz (Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019b;Ferrer et al., 2020) for raw data and on-board data processing, respectively. ...
... In gilthead sea bream and European sea bass, the AEFishBIT attachment was initially attained using laboratory tags for identification of experimentation animals (RapID tags), which were rapidly pierced to operculum and on which a polyamide pocket was fixed in juvenile fish of 50-100 g onward (Martos-Sitcha et al., 2019b). This attachment procedure did not alter significantly plasma levels of cortisol, glucose and lactate after 1 week of tagging. ...
Behavioral parameters are reliable and useful operational welfare indicators that yield information on fish health and welfare status in aquaculture. However, aquatic environment is still constraining for some solutions based on underwater cameras or echo sounder transmitters. Thus, the use of bio-loggers internally or externally attached to sentinel fish emerges as a solution for fish welfare monitoring in tanks- and sea cages-rearing systems. This review is focused on the recently developed AEFishBIT, a small and light data storage tag designed to be externally attached to fish operculum for individual and simultaneous monitoring of swimming activity and ventilation rates under steady and unsteady swimming conditions for short-term periods. AEFishBIT is a tri-axial accelerometer with a frequency sampling of 50–100 Hz that is able to provide proxy measurements of physical and metabolic activities validated by video recording, exercise tests in swim tunnel respirometers, and differential operculum and body tail movements across fish species with differences in swimming capabilities. Tagging procedures based on tag piercing and surgery procedures are adapted to species anatomical head and operculum features, which allowed trained operators to quickly complete the tagging procedure with a fast post-tagging recovery of just 2.5–7 h in both salmonid (rainbow trout, Atlantic salmon) and non-salmonid (gilthead sea bream, European sea bass) farmed fish. Dual recorded data are processed by on-board algorithms, providing valuable information on adaptive behavior through the productive cycle with the changing environment and genetics. Such biosensing approach also provides valuable information on social behavior in terms of adaptive capacities or changes in daily or seasonal activity, linking respiratory rates with changes in metabolic rates and energy partitioning between growth and physical activity. At short-term, upcoming improvements in device design and accompanying software are envisaged, including energy-harvesting techniques aimed to prolong the battery life and the addition of a gyroscope for the estimation of the spatial distribution of fish movements. Altogether, the measured features of AEFishBIT will assist researchers, fish farmers and breeders to establish stricter welfare criteria, suitable feeding strategies, and to produce more robust and efficient fish in a changing environment, helping to improve fish management and aquaculture profitability.
... Another recent innovation that could improve fish phenotyping is the development of sensors. As an example, Martos-Sitcha et al. [110] developed a device attachable to fish operculum allowing to monitor physical activity and respiratory frequency. In a near future, the remote monitoring of the animals and the rearing converted into intelligible data is expected to develop and to improve aquatic species survey for breeding programs. ...
