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Recent theories suggest that performance on working memory (WM) tasks involves retrieval from long-term memory (LTM). To examine whether WM and LTM tests have common principles, Craik and Tulving's (1975) levels-of-processing paradigm, which is known to affect LTM, was administered as a WM task: Participants made uppercase, rhyme, or category-membe...
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... The results suggest that semantic processes can contribute to STM retrieval. Further, the false memories found for phonological lists suggest that surface features contribute to retrieval from both STM and LTM and are consistent with a processing approach to STM/LTM distinctions (e.g., Rose & Craik, 2012), such that the degree to which different types of processing affect memory retrieval depends on the retention interval. ...
The Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm has been at the centre of false memory research. Whereas most work with this paradigm has examined memory at the long term and with semantically associated lists, the present study examines phonological and semantic false memories at both short- and long-term delays. In two experiments, participants studied short lists containing six (Experiment 1) or four (Experiment 2) items, either semantically or phonologically related to the same non-studied critical items (CI). Following each list, participants completed 36 trials of an immediate recognition task (short-term memory [STM]-only condition) only or they also completed a surprise recognition test after a 1-min delay after all 36 STM trials (STM + long-term memory [LTM] condition). In STM, false alarms were higher in phonological lists, whereas after the delay, false alarms were higher in semantic lists, reflecting differential sensitivity to the type of association as a function of delay. A third experiment examined LTM performance after controlling for prior testing and yielded highly similar results. Both the activation-monitoring framework (AMF) and fuzzy-trace theory (FTT) can explain the majority of the findings, with some remaining issues. These results confirm that information from the knowledge base (LTM) does influence accuracy in an STM task, albeit less so than perceptual level similarity.
... Plusieurs études suggèrent que le traitement sémantique en WM pourrait être modéré par des facteurs attentionnels (Loaiza et al., 2011;Rose et al., 2014;Rose & Craik, 2012). D'après Craik et Lockhart (1972), l'aspect crucial dans la qualité de la mémorisation est la manière dont l'information a été traitée et élaborée durant son apprentissage. ...
... Predictions concerning refreshing and relatedness effect on reconstruction are differed a lot between theoretical frameworks. Some would predict that refreshing will reduce relatedness effect (Rose & Craik, 2012), others that relatedness effect would be favored by refreshing (Loaiza, Duperreault, et al., 2015). Some would finally attend no effect of refreshing availability on reconstruction process (Cowan, 1999a), supported by the fact that divided attention manipulations, limited response time or high cognitive cost never affected any processes but conscious recollection (Benjamin & Craik, 2001;Jacoby, 1991;Jacoby et al., 1993). ...
Our results indicate that active maintenance in WM largely favors a process of direct access to verbatim- type representations rather than an engagement in a reconstruction process. The implication of knowledge in LTM can improve the encoding of these representations, as well as their reactivation in WM, but their beneficial effects are not attributable to the availability of the attentional refreshment mechanism as currently described in theoretical models of WM.
... Another possibility is to foster deeper processing of the memoranda through a levels of processing task (Craik & Tulving, 1975). There is mixed evidence that manipulations of the levels of processing produce a benefit in verbal working memory tasks (Loaiza & Camos, 2016;Loaiza et al., 2011;Rose et al., 2015Rose et al., , 2010Rose & Craik, 2012). It is unclear if this holds for visual working memory. ...
Elaboration enriches newly encoded information by connecting it to prior knowledge. Here, we tested if prior knowledge about object-color associations improves visual working memory (VWM) for colors. A sequence of four colored objects was presented in four screen locations for a continuous color reproduction test. Object-color associations were either congruent with prior knowledge (e.g., red tomato) or incongruent (e.g., blue tomato). In Experiments 1 and 2, congruency had no effect on memory irrespective of memoranda format (images or words), encoding time (1,500 vs. 4,500 ms), and an instruction to elaborate. In Experiment 3, the object was also tested with a three-alternative forced-choice before or after probing color memory. We also included neutral objects (no color association) and abstract shapes and tested VWM and episodic memory. Congruent items were remembered better than in all other conditions, which did not systematically differ. In Experiment 4, we assessed the congruency effect when only color or both color and object were tested. Congruent objects were remembered better only when both features were tested. Hence, prior knowledge boosts VWM only when this knowledge is relevant at test. Our results suggest that retrieval manipulations can be critical for promoting the use of long-term memory knowledge. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Another possibility is to foster deeper processing of the memoranda through a levels of processing task (Craik & Tulving, 1975). There is mixed evidence that manipulations of the levels of processing produce a benefit in verbal working memory tasks (Loaiza & Camos, 2016;Loaiza et al., 2011;Rose et al., 2015Rose et al., , 2010Rose & Craik, 2012). It is unclear if this holds for visual working memory. ...
Elaboration enriches newly encoded information by connecting it to prior knowledge. Here, we tested if prior knowledge about object-color associations improves visual working memory (VWM) for colors. A sequence of four colored objects was presented in four screen locations for a continuous color reproduction test. Object-color associations were either congruent with prior knowledge (e.g., red tomato) or incongruent (blue tomato). In Experiments 1 and 2, congruency had no effect on memory irrespective of memoranda format (images or words), encoding time (1500 vs. 4500 ms), and an instruction to elaborate. In Experiment 3, the object was also tested with a 3-alternative forced-choice before or after probing color memory. We also included neutral objects (no color association) and abstract shapes, and tested VWM and episodic memory. Congruent items were remembered better than in all other conditions, which did not systematically differ. In Experiment 4, we assessed the congruency effect when only color or both color and object were tested. Congruent objects were remembered better only when both features were tested. Hence, prior knowledge boosts VWM only when this knowledge is relevant at test. Our results suggest that retrieval manipulations can be critical for promoting the use of long-term memory knowledge.
... Furthermore, some studies indicate that certain forms of education and assessment motivate students to adopt more surface or deep approaches. For instance, Rose and Craik [38] and Clinton [39] introduced problem-oriented education and measurement of questions (open-ended comprehension) as incentive methods for a deep approach to learning. ...
BACKGROUND: Learners have various processing and understanding of the environment and issues and choose different strategies for problem-solving considering learning and studying approaches. The purpose of this study was to examine medical students' learning approaches and their association with academic performance and problem-solving styles.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study was conducted using the descriptive-correlational method. The statistical population comprised medical students of Iran University of Medical Sciences during the academic year of 2019–2020. Of them, 168 subjects were chosen based on simple random sampling and Morgan Table. Study tools include the Standard Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) Questionnaire, which includes 18 items and a Likert five-choice spectrum, and includes a deep, superficial, and strategic approach. Its reliability was determined by Cronbach's alpha of 0.81. Problem-Solving Style Questionnaire developed by Cassidy and Long was used. This instrument included 24 items and 6 components, and its reliability equaled 0.83, which was their grade point average. Data were analyzed using normality tests, paired t-test, Pearson correlation coefficient, and regression through SPSS 16 software.
RESULTS: Results implied the positive and significant relationship between deep-strategic approaches, problem-solving styles, and academic performance of medical students (P < 0.001); furthermore, there was no significant difference between learning approaches based on gender (P > 0.001), while there was a significant difference between two groups in terms of problem-solving styles (P < 0.001).
CONCLUSION: Because deep and strategic approaches predict academic performance and problem-solving styles, the diagnostic assessment must be done at the beginning of the educational process to determine the type of learners' approaches. Such an evaluation can be used to implement instructional strategies and educational designs to improve the academic performance of students.
... Memory tends to be better for items processed according to meaning (deep processing) rather than perceptual features (shallow processing). This levels of processing (LOP) effect has been consistently observed in both recall and recognition regardless of encoding intentionality or specific deep processing task (Craik & Tulving, 1975;Eysenck, 1979;Hyde & Jenkins, 1969;Moscovitch & Craik, 1976; but see Rose & Craik, 2012). Extensive work has investigated interactions between deep processing and other aspects of memory, such as primacy and recency (Mazuryk & Lockhart, 1974) and semantic organization (Einstein & Hunt, 1980;Hyde & Jenkins, 1969). ...
Memory tends to be better when items are processed for their meaning (deep processing) rather than their perceptual features (shallow processing). This levels of processing (LOP) effect is well-replicated and has been applied in many settings, but the mechanisms involved are still not well understood. The temporal contiguity effect (TCE), the finding that recalling one event often triggers recall of another event experienced nearby in time, also predicts memory performance. This effect has given rise to several competing theories with specific contiguity-generating mechanisms related to how items are processed. Therefore, studying how LOP and the TCE interact may shed light on the mechanisms underlying both effects. However, it is unknown how LOP and the TCE interact—various theories make differing predictions. In this preregistered study, we tested predictions of three theoretical explanations: accounts which assume temporal information is automatically encoded, accounts based on a trade-off between item and order information, and accounts which emphasize the importance of strategic control processes. Participants completed an immediate free recall task where they either engaged in deep processing, shallow processing, or no additional task while studying each word. Recall and the TCE were highest for no-task lists and greater for deep than shallow processing. Our results support theories which assume temporal associations are automatically encoded and those which emphasize strategic control processes. Both perspectives should be considered in theory development. These findings also suggest temporal information may contribute to better recall under deeper processing with implications for determining which situations benefit from deep processing.
... During this stage, the text is subject to bottom-up processing of phonological, syntactic, and lexicosemantic units, in which linguistic input is assigned linguistic representations (Fernández and Cairs, 2018, pp. 185-192; see also Rothermich et al., 2010;Chen et al., 2016;Bambini et al., 2018;Tsoukala, Vogelzang and Tsimpli, 2020;Postarnak, Castro and Silvia, 2020). Moreover, linguistic processing is often carried out quickly, automatically, and 'covertly, requiring little conscious effort or control. ...
... Most indicators of objective processing fluency often include better memory recall, reading speed and accuracy, and facilitation of other cognitive processes (e.g. semantic and syntactic processing), and increased attention (Sarasso et al., 2020), to name some (see Rose andCraik, 2012 andWinkielman et al., 2003 for summary). Indicators of objective processing difficulty include longer reading times, blinking, which signals cognitive load before and after processing, and semantic and syntactic integration difficulty, as indicated by behavioural and ERP studies (see Wallot et al., 2015;Kind, 2016;Siegle, Ichikawa and Steinhauer, 2008). ...
... Most indicators of objective processing fluency often include better memory recall, reading speed and accuracy, and facilitation of other cognitive processes (e.g. semantic and syntactic processing), and increased attention (Sarasso et al., 2020), to name some (see Rose andCraik, 2012 andWinkielman et al., 2003 for summary). Indicators of objective processing difficulty include longer reading times, blinking, which signals cognitive load before and after processing, and semantic and syntactic integration difficulty, as indicated by behavioural and ERP studies (see Wallot et al., 2015;Kind, 2016;Siegle, Ichikawa and Steinhauer, 2008). ...
... While these arguments seem coherent, there is strong empirical evidence which reveals disproportionate levels of memory performance in immediate and delayed task situations due to changes in information vividness and level of information processing (Loaiza, McCabe, Younghood, Rose & Myerson, 2011;Reyes, Thomson, & Bower, 1980;Rose & Craik, 2012). These researchers argue that in immediate memory-related tasks, rich media and higher levels of information processing do not have any major advantages over their counterparts, i.e., lean media and lower information processing levels. ...
Advergames are digital games through which advertisers promote their brands. While many studies have explored the influence of the gamification of advertising, little is known about the effects of important advergame attributes such as gaming platform (device used to play games) and game speed (overall pace of games) on consumers' immediate and delayed memory, delayed attitude, and delayed intention to purchase the advertised brands. We address these gaps by conducting two experiments with fictitious brands (Study 1) and real brands that vary in the degree of familiarity (Study 2). Results reveal that a PC-based advergame generates better delayed memory than a mobile-based advergame, while gaming platform does not affect immediate memory. Also, it interacts with game speed only in the delayed situation. Brand familiarity moderates the effects of gaming platform and game speed on brand attitude and purchase intention in such a way that unfamiliar brands are more effective than familiar ones.
... Individuals tend to have better memory for items they process according to meaning (deep processing) rather than perceptual features (shallow processing). This levels of processing (LOP) effect has been consistently observed in both recall and recognition regardless of encoding intentionality or specific deep processing task (Craik & Tulving, 1975;Eysenck, 1979;Hyde & Jenkins, 1969;Moscovitch & Craik, 1976; but see Rose & Craik, 2012). ...
Memory tends to be better when items are processed for their meaning (deep processing) rather than their perceptual features (shallow processing). This levels of processing (LOP) effect is well-replicated and has been applied in many settings, but the mechanisms involved are still not well understood. The temporal contiguity effect (TCE), the finding that recalling one event often triggers recall of another event experienced nearby in time, also predicts memory performance. This effect has given rise to several competing theories with specific contiguity-generating mechanisms related to how items are processed. Therefore, studying how LOP and the TCE interact may shed light on the mechanisms underlying both effects. However, it is unknown how LOP and the TCE interact—the various theories make differing predictions. In this preregistered study, we tested predictions of three theoretical explanations: accounts which assume temporal information is automatically encoded, accounts based on a trade-off between item and order information, and accounts which emphasize the importance of strategic control processes. Participants completed an immediate free recall task where they either engaged in deep processing, shallow processing, or no additional task while studying each word. Recall and the TCE were highest for no-task lists and greater for deep than shallow processing. Our results support theories which assume temporal associations are automatically encoded and those which emphasize strategic control processes. Both perspectives should be considered in theory development. These findings also suggest temporal information may contribute to better recall under deeper processing with implications in determining which situations benefit from deep processing.
... The underlying idea of this approach is that deeper encoding should improve performance in the WM test, if episodic memory contributes. Evidence consistent with this hypothesis has been found in some studies (Loaiza, McCabe, Youngblood, Rose, & Myerson, 2011) but not others (Loaiza & Camos, 2016;Rose & Craik, 2012;Rose, Craik, & Buchsbaum, 2015). ...
Previous research indicates that long-term memory (LTM) may contribute to performance in working memory (WM) tasks. Across 3 experiments, we investigated the extent to which active maintenance in WM can be replaced by relying on information stored in episodic LTM, thereby freeing capacity for additional information in WM. First, participants encoded word pairs into LTM, and then completed a WM task, also involving word pairs. Crucially, the pairs presented in each WM trial comprised varying numbers of new pairs and the previously learned LTM pairs. Experiment 1 showed that recall performance in the WM task was unaffected when memory set size increased through the addition of LTM pairs, but that it deteriorated when set size increased through adding new pairs. In Experiment 2, we investigated the robustness of this effect, orthogonally manipulating the number of new and LTM pairs used in the WM task. When WM load was low, performance declined with the addition of LTM pairs but remained superior to performance with the matched set size comprising only new pairs. By contrast, when WM load was higher, adding LTM pairs did not affect performance. In Experiment 3, we found that the benefit of LTM representations arises from retrieving these during the WM test, leading them to suffer from typical interference effects. We conclude that individuals can outsource workload to LTM to optimize performance, and that the WM system negotiates the exchange of information between WM and LTM depending on the current memory load. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
