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Bagasse flour (BF) was liquefied using bi-component polyhydric alcohol (PA) as a solvent and phosphoric acid as a catalyst in a microwave reactor. The effect of BF to solvent ratio and reaction temperatures on the liquefaction extent and characteristics of liquefied products were evaluated. The results revealed that almost 75% of the raw bagasse wa...
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Context 1
... the usage of methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) in preparing PU foams based on LB polyols was less than that based on PA. The density and physical properties of the PU foam samples prepared from liquefied bagasse polyols are shown in Table 2. The density increased as the PA content increased under both temperature levels. ...
Context 2
... results indicate that the density of PU foams could be adjusted by controlling certain liquefaction conditions. As shown in Table 2 at 125 ˝ C, the compressive strength (CS) and the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of the foams increased from 0.190 to 0.340 MPa and from 1.1 to 3.02 MPa, respectively, as the BF/PA ratio decreased from 1/2 to 1/4. When increasing the reaction temperature to 150 ˝ C and keeping the other conditions the same, the CS and the MOE of the foams increased from 0.32 to 0.48 MPa and from 2.0 to 5.1 MPa, respectively, with a decrease in BF/PA ratio. ...
Context 3
... the usage of methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) in preparing PU foams based on LB polyols was less than that based on PA. The density and physical properties of the PU foam samples prepared from liquefied bagasse polyols are shown in Table 2. The density increased as the PA content increased under both temperature levels. ...
Context 4
... results indicate that the density of PU foams could be adjusted by controlling certain liquefaction conditions. As shown in Table 2 at 125 ˝ C, the compressive strength (CS) and the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of the foams increased from 0.190 to 0.340 MPa and from 1.1 to 3.02 MPa, respectively, as the BF/PA ratio decreased from 1/2 to 1/4. When increasing the reaction temperature to 150 ˝ C and keeping the other conditions the same, the CS and the MOE of the foams increased from 0.32 to 0.48 MPa and from 2.0 to 5.1 MPa, respectively, with a decrease in BF/PA ratio. ...
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... The initial decomposition started at 263ºC which corresponds to around 37% of the weight loss. Because of the existence of liquefied residue in the B-PUf, the degradation of bamboo constitutions, i.e., hemicellulose and cellulose are at this temperature range [30,31]. However, the thermal stability of B-PUf was significantly increased in the temperature range of 370 − 800 • C and noticeably left higher residual char at 800 • C (38%). ...
In this study, the bamboo powder was liquified under microwave conditions and
utilized as a bio-polyol (B-polyol) to synthesize bio-based polyurethane foam (B-PUf). The NMR spectra and GC/MS results showed that the B-polyol mainly comprised carbon derivatives including sugars, phenolic compounds, and other compounds such as ethers and esters. The morphology of B-PUf showed a heterogeneous with a cell size range of 400−600 µm and a density lower than 34 kg/m3. The lignin derivatives in B-polyol contributed significantly to improving the thermal stability of B-PUf with a temperature range of 370−800 °C. The blocks of B-PUf with 50 × 50 × 25 mm were prepared and burned for flame retardance assessment. These results obtained from this study allow to explain how
bamboo can be used as a great potential alternative to fossil fuel and boost the bio-based content in PU foam materials.
... The acid liquefaction of biomass resources to fabricate bio-based rigid polyurethane foams can include bamboo (Xie et al. 2014), coffee grounds (Gama et al. 2015a), cork (Gama et al. 2015b;Esteves et al. 2017), corn stalk (Yan et al. 2008), corn bran (Lee et al. 2000), cotton burrs (Fidan and Ertaş 2020a), eucalyptus, pine woods (Ertaş et al. 2014), lignin (Xue et al. 2015;Mahmood et al. 2016), pine bark and peanut shell (Zhang et al. 2020), soybean straw (Hu et al. 2012), sugar-cane bagasse (Hakim et al. 2011;Xie et al. 2015), waste paper (Lee et al. 2002), wheat straw (Chen and Lu 2009), wood bark (Zhao et al. 2012), wood powder (Zhang et al. 2013), and yaupon holly (Huang et al. 2017a). ...
... As such, the preparation of RPUFs with increased fire resistance has rendered them flame retardant (Czech-Polak et al. 2016). In regard to bio-based RPUFs, bio-based polyols, which could be fabricated from plant fibers (Zhang et al. 2013;Xie et al. 2015;Zhang et al. 2020) and vegetable oils (Kuranska and Prociak 2016), are commonly served as raw materials owing to the existence of abundant hydroxyl groups or double bonds in these polyols (Zhang et al. 2020). ...
... The higher the bagasse residual amount, however poor the mechanical properties, the lower the economic price for the RPUFc. Hence, the balance point between the mechanical properties and economic price should be reached using a practical application (Xie et al. 2015). ...
The procedure for the liquefaction of apricot stone shells was reported in Part 1. Part 2 of this work determines the morphological, mechanical, and thermal properties of the bio-based rigid polyurethane foam composites (RPUFc). In this study, the thermal conductivity, compressive strength, compressive modulus, thermogravimetric analysis, flammability tests (horizontal burning and limited oxygen index (LOI)) in the flame retardants), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) (cell diameter in the SEM) tests of the RPUFc were performed and compared with control samples. The results showed the thermal conductivity (0.0342 to 0.0362 mW/mK), compressive strength (10.5 to 14.9 kPa), compressive modulus (179.9 to 180.3 kPa), decomposition and residue in the thermogravimetric analysis (230 to 491 °C, 15.31 to 21.61%), UL-94 and LOI in the flame retardants (539.5 to 591.1 mm/min, 17.8 to 18.5%), and cell diameter in the SEM (50.6 to 347.5 μm) of RPUFc attained from liquefied biomass. The results were similar to those of foams obtained from industrial RPUFs, and demonstrated that bio-based RPUFc obtained from liquefied apricot stone shells could be used as a reinforcement filler in the preparation of RPUFs, specifically in construction and insulation materials. Moreover, liquefied apricot stone shell products have potential to be fabricated into rigid polyurethane foam composites.
... Thermochemical methods such as liquefaction and pyrolysis have great potential to produce biofuels and valuable bio-chemicals. Studies have shown that liquefaction provides an efficient pathway to convert solid biomass into liquid products (Xie et al. 2015). One major application of the liquefaction product is to produce the biobased polyurethane foam composites (Xie et al. 2014). ...
... Until recently, a considerable amount of biomass has been liquefied to produce biobased PU foams such as agricultural wastes, e.g., corn bran (Lee et al. 2000), waste paper (Lee et al. 2002), chestnut and pine wood (Alma et al. 2003), cornstalk (Yan et al. 2008), wheat straw (Chen and Lu 2009), sugar-cane bagasse (Hakim et al. 2011), soybean straw (Hu et al. 2012), wood bark (Zhao et al. 2012), peanut shell (Bilir et al. 2013), wood powder (Zhang et al. 2013), bamboo (Xie et al. 2014), corn stover (Hu and Li 2014), eucalyptus and pine woods (Ertaş et al. 2014), cork (Gama et al. 2015b), lignin (Xue et al. 2015), coffee grounds (Gama et al. 2015a), sugar-cane bagasse (Xie et al. 2015), lignin (Mahmood et al. 2016), cork (Esteves et al. 2017), yaupon holly (Huang et al. 2017a), cotton burrs (Fidan and Ertaş 2020), and pine bark and peanut shell (Zhang et al. 2020). However, up to now there has been no research on the production of PU foam from the liquefaction of low-diameter apricot stone shells. ...
... Some of the components were amorphous cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin (Zhang et al. 2012a;Huang et al. 2017a). Generally, the liquefaction of biomass is a dynamic balance between the recondensation of small liquefied fragments and the reactions of the decomposition in macromolecules (Xie et al. 2015;Esteves et al. 2017;Huang et al. 2017a). Therefore, by increasing the temperature from 140 °C to 180 °C, the quantity of activated macromolecules and their internal energy increased Huang et al. 2017a). ...
Polyurethane foam is one of the most versatile construction insulation materials because of its low density, high mechanical properties, and low thermal conductivity. This study examined biobased rigid polyurethane foam composites from apricot stone shells, which are lignocellulosic residues. The apricot stone shells were liquefied with a PEG-400 (polyethylene glycol-400) and glycerin mixture in the presence of sulfuric acid catalyst at 140 to 160 °C for 120 min. Rigid polyurethane-type foam composites from the reaction were successfully prepared with different chemical components. Biobased polyurethane-type foam composites were successfully produced from the liquefied apricot stone shells. The FTIR spectra of liquefaction products confirmed successful liquefaction of products and that they are sources of hydroxyl groups. The liquefaction yield (81.6 to 96.7%), hydroxyl number (133.5 to 204.8 mg KOH per g), the highest elemental analysis amount (C, H, N, S, O) (62.08, 6.32, 6.12, 0.13, and 25.35%), and density (0.0280 to 0.0482 g per cm 3) of the rigid polyurethane foam composites were comparable to foams made from commercial RPUF composites.
... With the increasing emphasis on environmental issues and the importance of utilizing renewable resources in industrial processes, efforts have been made to produce biobased polyols to replace the conventional counterparts. 19 A variety of renewable feedstock can be used for the production of biobased polyols such as vegetable oils, 20−22 fatty acids, 23 fatty acid methyl esters, 24 crude glycerol, 25 wood, 26,27 crop residues, 28,29 and protein feedstocks. 30 Among all, vegetable oils have proven to be the most attractive source for the preparation of biobased polyols, owing to the fact that they are readily available and abundant in nature. ...
Biobased polymers are useful materials in substituting conventional petroleum-derived polymers because of their good properties, ready availability, and abundance in nature. This study reports a new jatropha oil-based gel polymer electrolyte (GPE) for use in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The GPE was prepared by mixing jatropha oil-based polyurethane acrylate (PUA) with different concentrations of lithium iodide (LiI). The GPE was characterized by infrared spectroscopy, thermal analysis, lithium nuclear magnetic resonance analysis, electrochemical analysis, and photocurrent conversion efficiency. The highest room-temperature ionic conductivity of 1.88 × 10–4 S cm–1 was obtained at 20 wt % of LiI salt. Additionally, the temperature-dependent ionic conductivity of the GPE exhibited Arrhenius behavior with an activation energy of 0.42 eV and a pre-exponential factor of 1.56 × 10³ S cm–1. The electrochemical stability study showed that the PUA GPE was stable up to 2.35 V. The thermal stability of the gel electrolyte showed an improvement after the addition of the salt, suggesting a strong intermolecular interaction between PUA and Li, which leads to polymer–salt complexation, as proven by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. A DSSC has been assembled using the optimum ionic conductivity gel electrolyte which indicated 1.2% efficiency under 1 sun condition. Thus, the jatropha oil-based GPE demonstrated favorable properties that make it a promising alternative to petroleum-derived polymer electrolytes in DSSCs.
... During the heating cycle, an endothermic event was observed at around 65 • C, which corresponds to the Tg point. The crystallization point Tc was found around the temperature of 87 • C, and as the temperature increased, a strong endothermic melting process occurred around the temperature of 179 • C [59]. Figure 4a presents the TPU thermogram, where a mass loss of 100% was recorded at around 356 • C, suggesting a low thermal stability [60]. The complete degradation of the polymer is accomplished in a singular step, in the range 380-430 • C. In addition, at lower temperatures, down to 380 • C [61], the DTG curve presents a mass loss of only 2%. ...
Bone tissue engineering is constantly in need of new material development with improved biocompatibility or mechanical features closer to those of natural bone. Other important factors are the sustainability, cost, and origin of the natural precursors involved in the technological process. This study focused on two widely used polymers in tissue engineering, namely polylactic acid (PLA) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), as well as bovine-bone-derived hydroxyapatite (HA) for the manufacturing of core-shell structures. In order to embed the ceramic particles on the polymeric filaments surface, the materials were introduced in an electrical oven at various temperatures and exposure times and under various pressing forces. The obtained core-shell structures were characterized in terms of morphology and composition, and a pull-out test was used to demonstrate the particles adhesion on the polymeric filaments structure. Thermal properties (modulated temperature and exposure time) and the pressing force’s influence upon HA particles’ insertion degree were evaluated. More to the point, the form variation factor and the mass variation led to the optimal technological parameters for the synthesis of core-shell materials for prospect additive manufacturing and regenerative medicine applications.
... As for bio-based RPUFs, bio-based polyols, which could be produced from vegetable oils [16][17][18] and plant fibers [19][20][21] are usually served as raw materials due to the existence of abundant hydroxyl groups or double bonds in these polyols. However, chemical modification for vegetable oils or liquefaction for plant fibers is always needed to transform them into bio-based polyols, and extra energy consumption is necessary for pretreating those biomass feedstocks. ...
Many achievements have been made on the research of composite polyurethane foams to improve their structure and mechanical properties, and the composite foams have been widely utilized in building insulation and furniture. In this work, rigid polyurethane foams (RPUFs) with the addition of different fillers (nano-SiO2, peanut shell, pine bark) were prepared through the one-step method. The effects of inorganic nano-SiO2 and organic biomass on foam properties were evaluated by means of physical and chemical characterization. The characterization results indicate that the compressive strength values of prepared foams could fully meet the specification requirement for the building insulation materials. The inorganic and organic fillers have no effect on the hydrogen bonding states in composite RPUFs. Furthermore, compared to the biomass fillers, the addition of nano-SiO2 greatly influenced the final residual content of the fabricated foam. All composite foams exhibit closed-cell structure with smaller cell size in comparison with the parent foam. The prepared composite foams have the potential for utilization in building insulation.
... A catalyst has been used in almost every liquefaction process using either conventional or microwave heating. In the liquefaction of most lignocellulosic biomass using microwave energy, sulfuric acid has been identified as a prevailing catalyst [57][58][59][60]. A variety of acids (sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and formic acid) have been used in the microwave liquefaction of the components of lignocellulosic biomass. ...
... The results confirmed that sulfuric acid was also a good choice in the liquefaction of lignin [61]. Sulfuric acid was found to be the most influential factor on the conversion of lignin compared to time and lignin concentration [60]. Furthermore, sulfuric acid was more efficient for the production of monophenolic products from liquefaction of lignin than the zeolite and FeS binary catalyst [62]. ...
... Various lignocellulosic biomass types such as poplar, southern pine, bamboo, bagasse, agricultural residues, and lignin have been microwave liquefied in alcohol solvents to produce PU foams. As shown in Figure 2, under different liquefaction conditions (the mass ratio of bagasse flour and biocomponent polyhydric alcohol was 1 : 2, 1 : 3, and 1 : 4 and the temperature was 125°C and 150°C), all the synthesized PU foams were of rigid type and the foam was darker in color with the addition of the liquefied bagasse [49,60,[74][75][76][77][78][79][80]. The properties of the fabricated biobased foams from microwave-liquefied products were largely dependent on the biomass type, heating methods, and liquefaction conditions. ...
Microwave-assisted liquefaction is regarded as a promising thermochemical approach to produce renewable and sustainable chemicals and materials from lignocellulosic biomass. Agricultural and forest residues as sources of lignocellulosic biomass have great potential in this regard. With process optimizations, several biomass types have been subjected to liquefaction in different solvents with various catalysts. The products from recent microwave liquefaction with and without further fractionation have been thoroughly analyzed and used for the synthesis of biomaterials. Renewable chemicals, polyurethane foams with partial use of renewable raw materials, and phenolic resins have been the main products from microwave-liquefied products. Further research on microwave liquefaction mechanisms and scalable production should be enhanced to fully evaluate the economic and environmental benefits. This work presents an overview on achievements using liquefaction in combination with microwave energy to convert lignocellulosic biomass into value-added products and chemicals.
... Generally, vegetable oils [4,8,[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22] and plant fibers [23][24][25][26][27][28][29] contain abundant hydroxyl groups or double bonds, which require chemical modification or liquefaction to generate bio-based polyols (BBPs) with proper hydroxyl numbers [10,11]. BBPs with hydroxyl numbers in the range of 200-550 mg KOH·g −1 would be suitable alternatives to replace the petroleum-based polyols for RPUFs synthesis [30]. ...
Bio-based polyurethane materials with abundant open-cells have wide applications because of their biodegradability for addressing the issue of environmental conservation. In this work, open-cell rigid polyurethane foams (RPUFs) were prepared with bio-based polyols (BBPs) derived from the liquefaction of peanut shells under different post-processing conditions. The influences of the neutralization procedure and filtering operation for BBPs on the foaming behaviors, density, dimensional stability, water absorption, swelling ratio, compressive strength, and microstructure of RPUFs were investigated intensively. The results revealed that a small amount of sulfuric acid in the polyols exhibited a great impact on physical and chemical properties of RPUFs while the filtering operation for those polyols had a slight effect on the above properties. The RPUFs prepared from neutralized BBPs possessed higher water absorption, preferable dimensional stability and compression strength than that fabricated from the non-neutralized BBPs. Moreover, the prepared RPUFs exhibited preferable water absorption of 636–777%, dimensional stability of <0.5%, compressive strength of >200 KPa, lower swelling rate of ca. 1%, as well as uniform cell structure with superior open-cell rate, implying potential applications in floral foam.
... Liquefaction was carried out in glycerol with catalysts of sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid. Since high catalyst loading would result in a negative effect on the liquefaction yield (Xie et al. 2015b), 3% of the mass ratio of the solvent of the catalysts was used to study liquefaction of the bark with respect to temperature (Fig. 1). The residue of the bark liquefied with sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid dramatically decreased with increasing temperature from 353.15 K (80°C) to 453.15 K (120°C), revealing that the increase in temperatures could significantly improve liquefaction yields. ...
Eucalyptus grandis W. Hill ex Maiden bark was liquefied in glycerol with two types of catalysts. The chemical components of the residues with respect to temperature were examined to investigate the liquefaction behavior of bark. The results reveal that sulfuric acid was more efficient in converting bark into fragments in glycerol at low temperatures ≤ 433.15 K, equivalent to 160 °C than phosphoric acid. The liquefaction order of chemical components was lignin, hemicelluloses, and cellulose. The decrease of liquefaction yields at high temperatures (> 453.15 K) catalyzed by sulfuric acid was possibly a result of the recondensation of lignin and/or hemicelluloses.
... There is a broad peak around 3330 cm −1 , which represents the OH groups either from the depolymerization of cellulose and/or other alcoholic moieties (Fig. 3.II) while the signal around 2880 cm −1 correspond to C-H stretching. The peak at 1734 cm −1 results from the carbonyl stretching in unconjugated ketone, ester or carboxylic groups in hemicellulose (Fig. 3.IV) [33][34][35]. The existence of the same signal on the liquefied product's spectra can suggest that hemicellulose was liquefied within the delivered products. ...
... benzene, guaiacyl, syringyl) is more prominent than in the aqueous one. Figure 3. II clearly suggest that the aqueous extract removed many of the highly hydroxyl functionalized molecules from the primarily liquefied product being the organic extract composed of less functionalized products [33]. Also, Fig. 3.III, which corresponds to the carbohydrate fingerprint [17,37,38], indicates a more substantial presence of carbohydrate's scaffolds in the aqueous extract (Fig. 3.III.W). ...
The use of petroleum-derived products should be avoided regarding the principles of green and sustainable chemistry. The work reported herein, is aimed at the liquefaction of pine shavings for the production of an environmentally-friendly polyol suitable to be used in the formulations of sprayable polyurethane foams. The biopolyols were obtained in high yield and were used to replace those derived from fossil sources, to produce more “greener” polyurethane foams and therefore, less dependent on petroleum sources, since the polyol component was substituted by products resulting from biomass liquefaction. The partial and fully exchange of the polyols was accomplished, and the results compared with a reference foam. The foams were afterward, chemical, physical, morphological, and mechanically characterized. The complete replacement of polyether polyol and polyol polyester has presented some similar characteristics as that used as a reference, validating that the path chosen for the development of more
