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Densities of lead shot in wetlands due to waterfowl hunting and sport shooting. Modified from Descalzo and Mateo (2018), updated from Mateo (2009). Shot densities are from individual or multiple sites in each country and from depths ranging from 5 to 30 cm. Data from Table 2 of Descalzo and Mateo (2018), updated from Mateo (2009)
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Poisoning of wild birds following ingestion of lead from ammunition has long been recognised and considerable recent research has focused on terrestrial birds, including raptors and scavengers. This paper builds upon previous reviews and finds that both the number of taxa affected and geographical spread of cases has increased. Some lead may also b...
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Lead poisoning threatens many species of raptors, including golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). Much of this lead likely comes from bullet fragments that remain in the carcasses of animals killed by hunters. The likelihood of lead exposure may peak during fall hunting seasons and early winter until carcasses from hunting become scarce. From 2011 to...
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... According to some community groups, the use of lead ammunition in sports and hunting activities is associated with the risks of environmental pollution and toxic effects on wildlife and humans (Pain et al., 2015, Arnemo et al., 2016Andersen et al., 2018;Pain et al., 2019;Andersen et al., 2020;Treu et al., 2020;Allen et al., 2023). Since February 2023, the use of lead shot in wetlands has been banned throughout the EU/EEA. ...
... On average, spent shot was present in the gizzards of 4.3-12.7% of the total amount of birds (16 651 birds). According to Pain et al. (2019), the prevalence of lead shot ingestion in waterfowl species is: ...
By using a two-stage physiologically based extraction test (PBET) and (W-PBET), the authors of this paper have estimated the bioaccessibility of metals (Pb and Fe) and their compounds in the GI tract of waterfowl and mammals. It has been shown that the metals (Pb and Fe) have low bioaccessibility; combined with the short time of shot exposition at the GI tract, this eliminates the risk of toxic effects in the case of shot ingestion by waterfowl. It has also been discovered that there is a significant difference in the bioaccessibility of metals and their compounds. A model was proposed and tested to predict the toxic effects of lead on biological objects depending on the threshold mass of consumption. This model takes into account data on the bioavailability of lead and regulatory values indicating dangerous concentrations of lead.
... Because of the many historical uses of lead and the impacts of chronic exposure on cognitive function of children, lead poisoning remains a high-profile and preventable human health concern. However, lead poisoning also is a global health concern for wildlife, with documented individual and population-level consequences for many species (Pain, Mateo & Green, 2019). ...
... Because of their ecological role and physiology, raptors can be excellent sentinels of environmental contamination, being frequently exposed to, highly affected by, and indicative of ecosystem effects, of a very wide suite of anthropogenic environmental pollutants (Richards et al., 2017;Baudrot et al., 2018;DeSorbo et al., 2018;Movalli et al., 2018;Wiens et al., 2019;Gonz alez-Rubio et al., 2021;Hofstadter et al., 2021). This is especially the case for lead exposure (Haig et al., 2014;Golden, Warner & Coffey, 2016;Pain et al., 2019), and today, lead poisoning is the most widespread form of heavy metal poisoning of birds of prey (Franson, 1996;Mautino, 1997;Fisher, Pain & Thomas, 2006). Lead exposure is a global and preventable problem for birds of prey, and high rates of lead exposure have been detected on the six continents where raptors are found (Golden et al., 2016;Garbett et al., 2018;Plaza et al., 2018;Pain et al., 2019;Pay et al., 2021). ...
... This is especially the case for lead exposure (Haig et al., 2014;Golden, Warner & Coffey, 2016;Pain et al., 2019), and today, lead poisoning is the most widespread form of heavy metal poisoning of birds of prey (Franson, 1996;Mautino, 1997;Fisher, Pain & Thomas, 2006). Lead exposure is a global and preventable problem for birds of prey, and high rates of lead exposure have been detected on the six continents where raptors are found (Golden et al., 2016;Garbett et al., 2018;Plaza et al., 2018;Pain et al., 2019;Pay et al., 2021). The majority of reported exposure is from residues or fragments of rifle bullets, shotgun pellets ('shot'), or shotgun slugs (Haig et al., 2014;Golden et al., 2016). ...
... Nos últimos 15 anos, notou-se um foco crescente do impacto de Pb em outros grupos de aves selvagens, incluindo aves de rapina . Verificou-se, portanto, que as tendências na exposição e nos efeitos da contaminação por Pb nas aves refletem as dos seres humanos (PAIN et al., 2019). Mesmo a baixa exposição pode ocasionar em múltiplos efeitos fisiológicos em mamíferos e aves, incluindo dificuldade na hematopoiese, alterações nas funções imunológicas e sensoriais, além do acometimento dos sistemas cardiovascular, renal, digestivo, reprodutivo e nervoso (BASSI et al., 2021). ...
... Lead (Pb) is a toxic, nonessential metal that has no known biologic function for living organisms, contaminates the environment, and causes negative health effects in humans and other animals (Ma 2011;European Chemicals Agency 2018;Lanphear et al. 2018;Pain et al. 2019). It occurs naturally in the Earth's crust and has historically been used in many products, including water pipes, paints, gasoline, ammunition, aviation fuel, motor vehicle batteries, glassware, and cosmetics (Bergdahl and Skerfving 2022). ...
... Research on Pb exposure and health effects in wildlife has often been undertaken in avian species, where the first poisonings were recognized nearly 150 yr ago (Calvert 1876). In birds, Pb exposure often leads to multisystemic clinical disease or even death, especially in waterfowl, scavenging birds, and predatory birds (e.g., Pain et al. 2019). Consequently, Pb exposure has caused population declines in the scavenging California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), a scavenging species (Green et al. 2008). ...
... Consequently, Pb exposure has caused population declines in the scavenging California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), a scavenging species (Green et al. 2008). Although toxicity thresholds in different avian species were previously proposed (Franson and Pain 2011), scientists have recently suggested stopping this practice, as it gives the impression that some levels of Pb are acceptable (Pain et al. 2019). ...
Lead (Pb) is a toxic nonessential metal, known mainly for causing poisoning of humans and wild birds. However, little is known about Pb exposure and its associated health effects in wild mammals. We conducted a global systematic literature review to identify peer-reviewed studies published on Pb exposure in wild mammalian species and the health effects they identified. In total, 183 studies, conducted in 35 countries and published over 62 yr (1961–2022), were included in the review. Only 6% (11/183) of the studies were conducted in developing countries. Although 153 mammalian species were studied, most studies focused on species that are easy to access (i.e., hunted species and small mammals that are easy to trap). Therefore, carnivores and scavengers were less frequently studied than herbivores and omnivores. Despite all studies reporting Pb concentrations, only 45 (25%) studies investigated health effects and, of these 45 studies, only 28 (62%) found any health effect in 57 species. All health effects were negative and ranged from subclinical effects to fatality. Methodologies of Pb sampling and quantification and reporting of results varied widely across the studies, making both Pb concentrations and health effects difficult to compare and evaluate. Thus, there is a need for more research on Pb exposure and its health effects on wild mammals, especially as carnivores and scavengers could be used as sentinels for ecosystem health.
... Comparatively, progress in reducing lead exposure amongst non-human animal populations has been inconsistent (Levin et al., 2021). Amongst bird species, ingestion of lead ammunition is the most widely studied source of lead exposure and, despite its prohibition in many countries, 40 remains a common source of lead poisoning in wildfowl, gamebirds, raptors and other scavenging birds (Pain et al., 2019). Fewer studies have explored the exposure and susceptibility of birds to soil contaminated by lead emissions from mining and smelting activities (Berglund et al., 2010;Chapa-Vargas et al., 2010;Durkalec et al., 2022;Williams et al., 2018). ...
... Lead contaminated soil has the potential to impact a diverse range of bird species across a broad range of habitats. This includes bird species which are not exposed to lead ammunition, such as those which are not hunted by humans, or are unlikely to consume game animals (Pain et al., 2019). Additionally, whereas exposure to lead ammunition is typically acute, ingestion or 55 inhalation of lead contaminated soil and dust is more often chronic, and its physiological effects may not be directly comparable between the two scenarios (Franson and Pain, 2011). ...
Lead contaminated soil is a persistent global threat to the health of animal populations. Nevertheless, links between soil lead and its adverse effects on exposed wildlife remain poorly understood. Here, we explore local geographic patterns of exposure in urban birds along a gradient of lead contamination in Broken Hill, an Australian mining city. Soil lead concentrations are linked to co-located blood lead measurements in rock pigeons (Columba livia), house sparrows (Passer domesticus), crested pigeons (Ocyphaps Lophotes) and white-plumed honeyeaters (Lichenostomus ornatus). Mean blood lead levels were highest in crested pigeons (82.1 µg/dL), followed by rock pigeons (47.8 µg/dL), house sparrows (43.0 µg/dL) and white-plumed honeyeaters (30.3 µg/dL). Blood lead levels in all species declined away from mining areas, the primary source of lead contamination in Broken Hill. Blood lead increased significantly and at the greatest rate relative to soil lead in the three ground foraging species (crested pigeons, house sparrows, rock pigeons). For these species, soil lead concentrations below 200 mg/kg and 900 mg/kg were needed to maintain a median blood lead under the subtoxic (20 µg/dL) and toxic (50 µg/dL) effect thresholds previously identified for some avian species. We also investigated the effects of lead exposure on blood haemoglobin levels as a general measure of physiological condition in birds exposed to different levels of soil lead contamination. Overall, for every 1 µg/dL increase in blood lead, haemoglobin decreased by 0.11 g/L. The rate of this decrease was not significantly different between species, which supports the measurement of haemoglobin as a robust though insensitive measure of physiological condition in chronically lead exposed birds. Our findings reflect the importance of lead contaminated soil as a widespread source of elevated blood lead and supressed haemoglobin levels in birds inhabiting urbanised and mining impacted environments.
... Lead constitutes the predominant element in lead bullets, comprising 93.1% of their overall mass (Laporte-Saumure et al., 2011). Lead bullets have been extensively employed worldwide over recent decades, establishing lead as the primary material utilized in bullet production (Pain et al., 2019). Consequently, firing ranges emerge as the second most significant source of lead (Pb) contamination in the environment, following the battery industry. ...
Land and groundwater resources are fundamental pillars of sustainable human development. The negligent abandonment of ammunition and its fragments during range activities can result in severe contamination of range sites, thereby posing a significant risk to both the ecological environment and human health. Nevertheless, numerous uncertainties persist regarding the comprehension of range contaminated sites. In this study, the literature on the range of contaminated sites decommissioned after 2000 was systematically examined to consolidate basic information related to these sites, such as contaminant types, contamination status, and remediation measures. Considerable attention is devoted to investigating the advancement of diverse techniques, such as phytoremediation, chemical leaching, and solidification/stabilization, to remediate polluted areas within decommissioned firing ranges. Among the various types of remediation means, physical remediation and chemical remediation have higher remediation efficiency, but generally have higher costs and are prone to secondary pollution. Bioremediation is low cost and environmentally friendly, but has a long restoration cycle. The choice of remediation method should be based on actual needs. Additionally, this study puts forth prospective avenues for future research. Ultimately, this endeavor aims to attract the interest of scholars toward the remediation of contaminated sites within firing ranges, thereby making a valuable contribution to both human wellbeing and sustainable progress.
... Lead poisoning can adversely affect the kidneys, liver, heart, brain, skeleton, and nervous system (Flora et al., 2006). The adverse effects of Pb toxicity on human health led to the gradual adoption of measures to remove it from our immediate environment (Stroud, 2015;Pain et al., 2019), leading to a reduction in Pb levels within human populations in certain regions (e.g., some European countries, Lermen et al., 2021). However, the global challenge persists unabated (Njati and Maguta, 2019;McFarland et al., 2022;Mielke et al., 2022). ...
... However, Pb remains a major problem in wildlife conservation . Wild birds are probably the vertebrates most severely impacted by Pb poisoning, with millions of deaths reported annually, including birds of prey from both American and European continents (see review in Pain et al., 2019;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2019). Lead poisoning in birds of prey primarily occurs through the ingestion of Pb from hunting ammunition, particularly affecting avian scavengers that feed on shot animals (Bassi et al., 2021;Pain et al., 2019). ...
... Wild birds are probably the vertebrates most severely impacted by Pb poisoning, with millions of deaths reported annually, including birds of prey from both American and European continents (see review in Pain et al., 2019;Plaza and Lambertucci, 2019). Lead poisoning in birds of prey primarily occurs through the ingestion of Pb from hunting ammunition, particularly affecting avian scavengers that feed on shot animals (Bassi et al., 2021;Pain et al., 2019). High levels of Pb in various tissues have been documented in vulture and condor populations worldwide (see Plaza and Lambertucci, 2019 and references therein). ...
... Passing years, soil contamination associated with various human activities such as shooting range, industrial, agricultural, mining, and waste disposal has been on the increase [2]. Among these sources of contamination, shooting range activity impacts negatively on the range surrounding environment especially soil contamination [3][4][5][6]. Some major contaminant associated with this activity is trace metals particularly lead [7][8][9]. ...
... Particulate Pb from weathering process of bullet fragments and deposit are readily bioavailable in soil ecosystem, while Pb-dust can be absorbed by human body through skin contact, inhalation and assimilation [15][16][17]. Bioavailability of lead in shooting range soil can be a burden to the immediate and surrounding environment through bioaccumulation in food chain posing serious threat to humans and living organism [5,[18][19][20]. Lead is highly toxic even at low concentration in adults and children, small amount as low as 10 µg/L in human blood can * Corresponding author. ...
In this study, the extent of Pb contamination around an active military shooting range is re-assessed to ascertain current contamination status comparatively to data’s reported 20 years ago. This is because lead bullet disintegration and mobility takes several years and extensively affects levels of soil-Pb contamination. A total of 120 topsoil samples were collected within the impact area (front) and non-impact area (back) for Pb determination. High concentrations of Pb were found at impact berm both front (28940±2996 μg/g) and back (775±128 μg/g). Spatial distribution of contamination reflects the distances from berm. Soil-Pb contamination around non-impact area was notable at back berm through to 100 m distance with significant difference in Pb, Cr, Ni and Zn levels. Concentration of Pb at berm was observed to have increase five-fold over a period of about twenty years from previous study with accumulation factor of about 1000. Principal component analysis PCA indicated 67 % of total metal load of range soil was majorly from impact areas of the berm. The correspondence analysis relay plot shows pollution order of Pb > Ni > Cd > Cr > Zn > Cu. This confirms soil contamination especially around the impact area, i.e. impact berm and firing lines and non-impact area at 0 m, 10 m, 50 m and 100 m. Environmental consequence of high soil-Pb levels within the range especially non-impact areas utilized for farming activities will leave much to desire. Hence, extensive and continuous monitoring is needed. However, remediation through appropriate soil washing technique could reduce Pb levels and improve soil condition regardless of age.
... Lead is a nonessential metal capable of altering and modifying physiological and biochemical systems (Pain et al., 2019). Lead accumulation in blood of crocodilians has been the subject of several studies. ...
... The highest mean Pb blood of 0.83 µg mL -1 detected in animals from UA is similar to the reported high doses in A. mississippiensis in Louisiana (Camus et al., 1998) and lower than blood Pb concentrations in male C. niloticus from South Africa (Humphries et al., 2022;Warner et al., 2016), where toxic effects were considered likely (Table 3). For birds, Pb levels of intoxication have varied from subclinical (0.5 µg mL -1 ) to severe clinical intoxication (1 µg mL -1 ; Pain et al., 2019) and for mammals, intoxications have occurred from 0.6 to 0.8 µg mL -1 (Ma, 2011). Blood Pb concentrations for caiman captured in the urbanized areas of our study are higher than these stipulated for mammals and within the range of severe intoxication in birds. ...
Studies on the bioaccumulation and toxicity of contaminants in Crocodylians are scarce. We evaluated alterations in concentrations of the nondestructive biomarkers butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), glutathione‐S‐transferase (GST), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and reduced glutathione (GSH), together with bioaccumulation of the metals iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), chronium (Cr), aluminium (Al), and lead (Pb) in Caiman latirostris captured in Tapacurá Reservoir (TR; São Lourenço da Mata, Pernambuco, Brasil), in urbanized areas of Pernambuco State (UA; Brasil) and from the AME Brasil caiman farm (AF; Marechal Deodoro, Alagoas, Brasil); the latter was used as a potential reference with low levels of contamination. For metal analysis, 500 µL of blood was digested in 65% HNO 3 and 30% H 2 O 2 . The samples were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry. For analysis of biomarkers, an aliquot of blood was centrifuged to obtain plasma in which biochemical assays were performed. Blood concentrations of metals analyzed in animals from AF were lower compared with TR and UA, confirming that animals from the caiman farm could be used as references with low levels of contamination. Iron, Cu, Mn, Al, and Pb exceeded toxic levels for other vertebrates in animals from TR and UA. Butyrylcholinesterase activity showed significant reduction in adults from UA and TR compared with AF. An increase in the activity of GST and GSH, in adults of TR and UA in relation to AF, was verified. Superoxide dismutase activity showed a significant reduction in adults of TR in relation to AF, and the concentrations of Cu and Mn were negatively correlated with SOD activity. Animals from UA and TR showed greater concentrations of the analyzed metals compared with reference animals, and changes in biomarkers were seen, confirming the potential of these nondestructive chemical and biological parameters in blood of C. latirostris for biomonitoring of pollution. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;00:1–18. © 2024 SETAC
... Elevated levels of Hg in avian organism may negatively affect their navigation, flight abilities, and immune function (Lewis et al. 2013;Ma et al. 2022;Moye et al. 2016). Elevated levels of Pb may result in anaemy, lethargy, muscle wastage and loss of fat reserves, green diarrhea staining the vent, wing droop, loss of balance and coordination, and other neurological signs such as leg paralysis or convulsions (Pain et al. 2019). ...
... The primary source of Pb for ducks is often lead shots used by hunters, as ducks mistakenly ingest lead pellets from shot ammunition, mistaking them for small stones (grit) (Guitart et al. 1994;Sujak et al. 2019;Sonne et al. 2022). It is worth noting that the period of autumn bird migration in Central Europe coincides with the time of intensive hunting in wetland areas (Hirschfeld and Heyd 2005;Mitrus and Zbyryt 2015;Pain et al. 2019). A notable proportion (22.2%) of the migrating Mallards exhibited hepatic lead levels that exceeded the background level (Table 3). ...
During migration, birds explore various habitats at stopover sites that differ in food resources and contamination levels. In this study, hepatic concentrations of 21 elements (metals and metalloids) in 11 species of birds, representing various foraging habitats (such as aquatic, aquatic/terrestrial, and terrestrial) and migration modes (migratory and sedentary) representing various foraging guilds (omnivores, piscivores, and molluscivores), were analyzed. The samples (N = 84) were collected during the autumn migration period in Poland. The concentrations of elements determined in this study exhibited high inter-species variability, reflecting the diversity in contamination levels depending on food resources used by specific bird groups. Many of the investigated individuals from different species showed exceeded levels of subclinical toxicity and moderate clinical poisoning due to Cd and Hg. Higher concentrations of As, Hg, and Ba and lower V concentrations were found in migratory birds as compared to sedentary birds. Species foraging in terrestrial habitat had different concentrations of some elements compared to aquatic and aquatic/terrestrial species. Some specific inter-species differences in hepatic elemental concentrations were found. Differences in elemental concentrations among various groups can primarily be attributed to their foraging guilds, with certain elements, particularly As, V, and Hg, playing a significant role in the dissimilarity of elemental concentrations between foraging habitat groups and migratory mode groups. The data collected confirmed the limited ability of As to enter ecosystem pathways. The results of this study contribute to understanding the year-round exposure of migratory birds to environmental contamination, which can have carry-over effects on their performance in wintering and breeding grounds.
