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1 Delphinium ssum subsp. sordidum (photo: F. Amich). 2 Gyrocaryum oppositifolium (photo: A. Saldana).
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... strategies should establish a protected area to conserve as many populations as possible because the disappearance and extinction of species begin with a reduction in populations and the consequent loss of the gene pool. Reserves of plants have long been recognized as an efficient way to protect populations (Cowling et al., 2003;Kadis et al., 2013). Because M. korsakowii is mainly distributed in paddy fields, which are easily disturbed by human activities, appropriate strategies should be implemented immediately to maintain the population structure, including seed collection and pest and disease control to reinforce population viability. ...
... These studies focused on population dynamics, in order to establish safeguards and protection measures for these species. This can be achieved through specific in situ conservation measures, such as the establishment of micro-reserves [75], an approach successfully developed in recent decades in Spain and, subsequently, in other European and Mediterranean countries [76][77][78]. For S. ceratophylloides, the extension of the microreserve should cover about 7 km 2 , around the hills of Reggio Calabria, encompassing the entire Area Of Occurrence (AOO) of the species [48]. ...
Understanding how changes of any origin interact with the structure and survival of entire populations is very important for the protection and conservation of threatened, rare and/or endemic species. In this study, structure and population dynamics of Salvia ceratophylloides Ard., a precious endemic species, belonging to the subgenus Sclarea (Moench) Benth., section Plethiosphace Benth. (Lamiaceae) exclusive to the suburban environments of Reggio Calabria (Southern Italy), was analysed. Interactions between this species and its different growth habitats were examined. Moreover, the disturbance factors which directly affect the demographic viability of the species, influencing its growth, reproduction and distribution in its distribution area were identified. From 2019 to 2021, a census by counting individuals of all the known stations, recorded according to a specific protocol, was carried out. The recorded data were statistically analysed and compared with those of the phytosociological surveys carried out using the Braun-Blanquet method and summarised in phytosociological classes, in accordance with the hierarchical floristic classification system of vascular plant communities, accepted at national and European levels. The structure of the different populations was also related to the different threat factors that afflict S. ceratophylloides. It was observed that the most structured populations of S. ceratophylloides were found in natural and semi-natural environments where the anthropogenic disturbance was minor, while populations with an irregular structure were found in sites exposed to disturbances of various origins. The different phytosociological classes do not interact directly on population structure. The most important factors affecting structure and distribution are disturbances of various origins, in particular anthropogenic and phytosanitary disturbances. In order to keep populations balanced and stable over time, it would be useful to adopt conservation measures for the species and the habitat in which they live, with practical solutions for the following: (a) to limit infestations by insects that parasitize stems and seeds; (b) to prevent mowing, fires, grazing and the introduction of invasive alien species.
... It is also evident that hesitancy towards anything other than conventional conservation actions persists [101]. Considering the worst-case scenario (i.e., the extinction of the highest number of species by climate change impacts), in situ conservation focused on micro-reserves and ex situ conservation practices should be considered, as an insurance policy against such losses of plant biodiversity [102], which constitute cost-effective conservation measures [103]. Irreplaceability is a measure of the conservation value of an area [104] designated as PA and/or climatic refugium. ...
Climate change poses a great challenge for biodiversity conservation. Several studies exist regarding climate change’s impacts on European plants, yet none has investigated how climate change will affect the extinction risk of the entire endemic flora of an island biodiversity hotspot, with intense human disturbance. Our aim is to assess climate change’s impacts on the biodiversity patterns of the endemic plants of Crete (S Aegean) and provide a case-study upon which a climate-smart conservation planning strategy might be set. We employed a variety of macroecological analyses and estimated the current and future biodiversity, conservation and extinction hotspots in Crete. We evaluated the effectiveness of climatic refugia and the Natura 2000 network of protected areas (PAs) for protecting the most vulnerable species and identified the taxa of conservation priority based on the Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) index. The results revealed that high altitude areas of Cretan mountains constitute biodiversity hotspots and areas of high conservation and evolutionary value. Due to the “escalator to extinction” phenomenon, these areas are projected to become diversity “death-zones” and should thus be prioritised. Conservation efforts should be targeted at areas with overlaps among PAs and climatic refugia, characterised by high diversity and EDGE scores. This conservation-prioritisation planning will allow the preservation of evolutionary heritage, trait diversity and future ecosystem services for human well-being and acts as a pilot for similar regions worldwide.
... Considering the worstcase scenario (i.e. extinction of the highest number of species by climate-change impact), in-situ conservation focusing at micro-reserves and ex-situ conservation practices should be considered, as an insurance policy against such losses of plant biodiversity (Hawkes et al., 2012), which constitute cost-effective conservation measures (Kadis et al., 2013). By this, our study urges scientists and authorities to aim the conservation effort at areas with overlaps among PAs and climate refugia, characterized simultaneously by high diversity and EDGE scores (including the 11 taxa with the highest EDGE score), as well as serving as mixed-endemism centres. ...
In the Anthropocene era, climate change poses a great challenge in environmental management and decision-making for species and habitat conservation. To support decision-making, many studies exist regarding the expected vegetation changes and the impacts of climate change on European plants, yet none has investigated how climate change will affect the extinction risk of the entire endemic flora of an island biodiversity hotspot, with intense human disturbance. Our aim is to assess, in an integrated manner, the impact of climate change on the biodiversity and biogeographical patterns of Crete and to provide a case-study upon which a cost-effective and climate-smart conservation planning strategy might be set. We employed a variety of macroecological analyses and estimated the current and future biodiversity, conservation and extinction hotspots in Crete, as well as the factors that may have shaped these distribution patterns. We also evaluated the effectiveness of climate refugia and the NATURA 2000 network (PAs) on protecting the most vulnerable species and identified the taxa that should be of conservation priority based on the Evolutionary Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) index, during any environmental management process. The highlands of Cretan mountain massifs have served as both diversity cradles and museums, due to their stable climate and high topographical heterogeneity. They are also identified as biodiversity hotspots, as well as areas of high conservation and evolutionary value, due their high EDGE scores. Due to the 'escalator to extinction' phenomenon and the subsequent biotic homogenization, these areas are projected to become diversity 'death-zones' in the near future and should thus be prioritized in terms of conservation efforts and by decision makers. In-situ conservation focusing at micro-reserves and ex-situ conservation practices should be considered as an insurance policy against such biodiversity losses, which constitute cost-effective conservation measures. Scientists and authorities should aim the conservation effort at areas with overlaps among PAs and climate refugia, characterized by high diversity and EDGE scores. These areas may constitute Anthropocene refugia. Thus, this climate-smart, cost-effective conservation-prioritization planning will allow the preservation of evolutionary heritage, trait diversity and future services for human well-being and acts as a pilot for similar regions worldwide.
... El concepto de Micro-reservas de Plantas, difundido en algunos países de Europa, puede importarse a casos como el presente. Su aplicación consiste en la protección de relativamente pequeñas porciones de terreno (hasta 1000 hectáreas) en las que se haya registrado la presencia de una población de alguna especie amenazada en microhábitats particulares (Kadis et al., 2013). La promoción de este tipo de reservas en el sector estudiado tiene ciertas ventajas para la población, como ser que no implican un costo para los productores locales y puede acarrear actividades económicas alternativas como el ecoturismo. ...
The talares from Buenos Aires province, Argentina, are xerophytic forests that bare a great biodiversity in a small area. Their lineal distribution confined to the ravines, dunes and beach ridges leads to several conservation problems. The loss of forest sectors due to human activities interrupts the forest linearity causing the isolation of talares patches. The ravines near Lima, Zárate district, were studied with the aim of surveying its flora because previous authors stated its good conservation condition. According to a previous classification of the talares based on species composition, the site is placed between the northern and the central talares, so a main objective was to know whether it can be classified as the former or the latter type. A total of 124 plants were counted, of which some relicts in retraction, species in its austral limit of distribution, rare species in the province and regional endemics are remarkable. The species composition relates the site with northern talares, which bares chacoan species. This area, despite being a suitable area for biodiversity conservation, is threatened by diverse factors. Other talares of Zárate have already been destroyed or degraded; if the Lima talares are destroyed, near reserves runs the danger of an increasing isolation. The potential of the area for the protection of threatened species and the importance of carrying out surveys in unprotected natural areas is highlighted.
... Another interesting perspective in the case of severe habitat fragmentation and urbanization, but also strong floristic diversity, would be to target conservation action on a network of small areas. In the Mediterranean region, the Plant Micro-Reserves network (PMR) represents a valuable practical conservation framework supported by the European Union (Laguna et al. 2004;Lumbreras 2001;Kadis et al. 2013). This approach, first tested in Spain and then extended to other Mediterranean areas (Cyprus, Crete, Croatia), seems promising, especially because it allows closer monitoring of the most endangered plant populations, implementing action, appropriate to the particular needs of species. ...
Current biodiversity patterns are a temporary state in a continuum of ecological and evolutionary changes. Conservation policies must incorporate this dynamic to ensure the long-term conservation of biodiversity which is particularly challenging in a context of extreme urbanization. An original approach, rarely used for plant conservation, is to define conservation units to set conservation priorities within species by combining ecological and evolutionary divergences. In the Maritime Alps (southern France), the ecological and evolutionary divergences between the populations of Acis nicaeensis has allowed us the determination of conservation units of this endemic plant threatened by severe urbanization and land-use changes. Phylogeographical data (cpDNA haplotype) were considered as a proxy for evolutionary legacy, and ecological data (multivariate analysis of habitat) were used as a proxy for ecological distinctiveness. Our goal was to explore the potential of this approach to assess vulnerability and set conservation priorities for narrow endemic species in the context of conflict between biodiversity and human activities. The results highlight five different conservation units within A. nicaeensis distribution. Genetic and ecological divergences are present at fine-scale. This pattern is highly endangered by urbanisation. This study highlights the vulnerability of conservation units near the coast whose originality and restricted distribution call for rapid conservation management to avoid the loss of species evolutionary and ecological distinctiveness.
... This population-oriented figure of on-site protection developed in Valencia (Eastern Spain), and subsequently expanded into other regions, with 170 over 300 reserves currently existing in the country. In recent times, plant micro-reserves have been created in other European countries (Kadis et al. 2013). Finally, the first legal recovery plan for a threatened plant was approved in 1994, a 175 novelty for both Spain and Europe (Moreno Saiz et al. 2003); since then, there has been some tradition of approval of measures for the management of populations of endangered species. ...
The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) seeks to assess the conservation status of the world vascular plants by 2020, and to guarantee that at least 75% threatened taxa are conserved in situ. A comprehensive evaluation of IUCN categories for 7269 Spanish vascular plants (GSPC Target 2), using distribution data and environmental niche models, is presented. A gap analysis to assess the percentage of threatened plants effectively conserved in situ (considering national parks, plant micro-reserves and recovery or conservation plans) was also conducted (Target 7). The result is that only 44.4% threatened species are subject to an adequate in situ protection. An appropriate management of additional natural protected areas towards the conservation of threatened plants would make Spain meet this threshold, but severe deficiencies should be corrected. The methodology presented here is proposed as a tool to assess the degree of achievement of GSPC targets. This procedure can be quickly implemented and allows an easy evaluation of the progress, as well as the pending tasks in a given period of time.
... Une PMR est une réserve permanente de petite surface (< 20 ha), consacrée à la surveillance à long terme des espèces végétales en danger d'extinction et des types de végétation afférant. Les réseaux des PMR constituent un cadre pratique de conservation soutenu par l'union européenne (Kadis et al., 2013). Cette approche, d'abord testée dans la région de Valencia (Espagne) puis étendue à d'autres régions méditerranéennes (Chypre, Crète, Croatie), semble prometteuse, notamment car elle permet une surveillance plus étroite des populations végétales les plus menacées, en mettant en place les actions adaptées aux besoins particuliers des espèces (Laguna et al., 2004). ...
Diversity patterns represent a temporary state in a dynamic continuum of ecological and evolutionary changes. Thus, conservation policies have to integrate this dynamics to ensure long term conservation of biodiversity. Conservation priorities have to be oriented towards the processes which generate and maintain diversity. An original approach is to assess the capacity of phylogeography as a method to integrate processes of diversification and persistence into conservation. Indeed, the phylogeography allows providing indices for diversification zonation and can be used to delineate the units (e.g. evolutionary significant units) that support diversification at intraspecific level. The main objective of this PhD thesis is to evaluate, in terms of targets and surrogates, the role of phylogeography for conservation of the Mediterranean flora. We based our analyses on two study areas harbouring two endemic plant species with restricted distributions: (i) the coastal ranges of the Maritime Alps where the endemic Acis nicaeensis grows, (ii) the calcareous Provence where the endemic Arenaria provincialis is found. At a sub-regional scale, spatial diversity of Arenaria provincialis showed a spatial distribution of persistence and divergence which reveal the potentials of research on the use of the evolutionary legacy, as a surrogate for biodiversity. Our study highlights the critical role of phylogeography to delineate and assess conservation efficiency of the protected areas as well as in the search for optimal criteria for the defining the conservation strategies. The marked differences in populations of Acis nicaeensis in terms of isolation, size, genetic origin, and ecology but also in terms of its vulnerability to urbanization are highlighted in a local scale. The results demonstrate the important vulnerability of coastal population, whose originality necessitates conservation actions designed for small areas to avoid the loss of Acis nicaeensis evolutionary legacy.
Chelmos-Vouraikos National Park is a floristic diversity and endemism hotspot in Greece and one of the main areas where Greek endemic taxa, preliminary assessed as critically endangered and threatened under the IUCN Criteria A and B, are mainly concentrated. The climate and land-cover change impacts on rare and endemic species distributions is more prominent in regional biodiversity hotspots. The main aims of the current study were: (a) to investigate how climate and land-cover change may alter the distribution of four single mountain endemics and three very rare Peloponnesian endemic taxa of the National Park via a species distribution modelling approach, and (b) to estimate the current and future extinction risk of the aforementioned taxa based on the IUCN Criteria A and B, in order to investigate the need for designing an effective plant micro-reserve network and to support decision making on spatial planning efforts and conservation research for a sustainable, integrated management. Most of the taxa analyzed are expected to continue to be considered as critically endangered based on both Criteria A and B under all land-cover/land-use scenarios, GCM/RCP and time-period combinations, while two, namely Alchemilla aroanica and Silene conglomeratica, are projected to become extinct in most future climate change scenarios. When land-cover/land-use data were included in the analyses, these negative effects were less pronounced. However, Silene conglomeratica, the rarest mountain endemic found in the study area, is still expected to face substantial range decline. Our results highlight the urgent need for the establishment of micro-reserves for these taxa.
Climate change has emerged as the main threat to global biodiversity and even the protected areas (PAs) are not immune to this problem. Here, we have focused on PAs with the aim of assessing the impacts of climate change on their habitat suitability and their effectiveness to protect threatened species, in this case three endemic Spanish plants: Isatis platyloba, Rhaponticum exaltatum and Succisella microcephala. We used the machine-learning technique called Maxent that is able to protect the potential species distribution under four future climate scenarios. Our results show a strong reduction of the potential areas with high suitability for Isatis platyloba. By contrast, for Rhaponticum exaltatum and Succisella microcephala our results suggested an increase of potential habitats. Regarding to the PAs specially designed to protect some important populations of these species, most of them would be located in areas with high suitability for all species in the future. Our study supports the necessity of the proposed Plant Micro-reserves to guarantee the preservation of these three species and, most importantly, can serve as a model to evaluate the efficiency of a given PA in protecting any species taking into account the climate change scenario.
Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2021.1918777.
