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Daily variation of temperature in nests of blue tits. Temperature is decreasing at 00:00 and lower values for the day are attained close to 8:00 h. Data from two different nests with nestling of 7 days old are represented from A) Spain and B) Germany.
Source publication
Although different predictive models forecast that climate change will alter the distribution and incidence of parasitic diseases, few studies have investigated how microclimatic changes may affect host-parasite relationships. In this study, we experimentally increased the temperature inside nest boxes of the blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus during the...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... For each day (24 h) from day 3-13 post-hatching, we calculated the average temperature and relative humidity. We also calculated the averages of both variables during the night (from 00:00 to 8:00 h) over the same period. We selected that hour interval because temperature is decreasing at nests and reaching its lower daily value (see results and Fig. 1). Sensors were removed from the nests once nestlings fledged (day 20 or 21 post-hatching). To measure the ambient temperature and relative humidity, three external sensors (Tinytag Plus 2; TGP-4500; data logger; 7.9 × 5.1 cm, temperature range: 25-85 • C, resolution 0.01 • C; humidity range: 0-100%, resolution 0.3%; Gemini Data ...
Context 2
... t-test: t = 0.34, df = 8, p = 0.742). However, we observed significant and clear differences in these variables between heated and control nests at night (from 00:00 to 8:00 h), in the absence of variation due to direct solar radiation on nest boxes. Temperature during that interval are decreasing at nests and reaching its lower daily value (Fig. 1). Differences during that period are mainly related to heated nests having a higher temperature or lower relative humidity than controls during the night. All data reported hereafter refer to temperature and relative humidity conditions at night, unless otherwise ...
Context 3
... the case of birds, their flight ability allows them to look for habitats with more favorable climatic conditions via short or even long migrations. In this context, their parasites may also travel with them to new habitats, potentially infecting new bird species, or the birds could come into contact with new parasites in the new localities (Phillips et al., 2010). However, some birds are non-migratory and will likely have to adapt somehow to changing climatic conditions. ...
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Ectoparasites are fundamental to ecosystems, playing a key role in trophic regulation. Fleas, mites, and ticks are common hematophagous ectoparasites that infest shared mammalian hosts. One common host in Ontario, Canada, is the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus). As the climate warms and the geographic ranges of blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapular...
Citations
... fleas increases with relative humidity up to a certain level in passerine nests (Heeb et al., 2000). Furthermore, experimental increases in temperature in nests of blue tit, Cyanistes caeruleus (L.) (Passeriformes: Paridae), have significant detrimental effects on the development of parasitic blowfly pupae, Protocalliphora azurea (Fallén), and dermanyssid mites (Castaño-Vázquez et al., 2021). In general, temperature affects most aspects of the biology of insects including metabolic rates, the limits of physiological function, developmental times, and behaviour and population survival (Lee, 1991;Wilches et al., 2016). ...
Many factors may affect the diversity and abundance of arthropods in their natural habitats including changes in temperature and humidity. Sometimes, large arthropods remain undetected in unsuspected habitats such as bird nests. Here, we explore the effects of an experiment modifying temperature and relative humidity inside the nest of a troglodyte bird species, the blue tit, Cyanistes caeruleus (L.) (Passeriformes: Paridae), on the abundance of dermestid beetles (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) inhabiting the nests. Ten taxa were identified, six at the species level and four—based on larval stages—at the genus level. Most of the dermestids found in the larval stage were nidicolous dermestids of the genus Anthrenus. Specimens of necrobiont dermestids (those that feed on carcasses in both the larval and adult stages) were found in lower numbers, and almost always in adult stages. The abundance of dermestid larvae found in blue tit nests where the temperature or the humidity were experimentally increased was significantly higher than in the control nests. In addition, adult necrobiont dermestids of genus Dermestes appeared more frequently in those nests where corpses of blue tit nestlings were found.
... First, it reduces the visibility of the nest chamber, making it more difficult for visual predators and parasites to locate and access nests. Second, reduced light levels may discourage certain parasites or insects that require light for activity or navigation [27,97,98]. Therefore, understanding the relationship between tunnel depth and the amount of light in the nest chamber may provide insights into the factors that influence parasite detection and predation risk for these burrowing bird species [99]. ...
... On the other hand, if resources are scarce, the nesting holes may be built closer together to pool the birds' resources and increase the chances of survival for the entire colony [28]. Numerous reports have highlighted the influence of nesting behavior on the spacing of Sand Martin nest holes [27,41,103]. However, we observed closely spaced nest holes in the region (DMS and DMC colonies). ...
Simple Summary
Sand Martin populations have declined globally, probably partly because of the decrease in suitable nesting sites. Therefore, it is important to know the factors influencing the nest locations of the Sand Martin. We investigated the physical properties of four Sand Martin colonies, their relationships with the soil characteristics, and the location of the colony (lakeshore sites vs. non-lakeshore sites) in the Lake Van Basin (Turkey). The results indicated that the location of the colony was a critical predictor of the physical properties of nesting holes, including tunnel depth and distance between tunnels. Deeper Sand Martin nest tunnels occur near water sources and soils with higher pH and electrical conductivity values. Nest holes were located closer to each other in lakeshore colonies than in non-lakeshore colonies, and between-hole distances increased with electrical conductivity. The width of the entrance opening increased with soil particle size. The mean particle size in the soil samples collected from nest bottoms was 0.123 mm. Our results indicated that nesting Sand Martins could avoid sites with too compact or loose soils, reducing the possibility of nest collapse. Vertical lakeshore embankments offer good nesting sites for Sand Martins and should be protected.
Abstract
Vertical embankments and mounds serve as suitable habitats for burrowing birds, such as the Sand Martin (Riparia riparia). Sand Martins have decreased in many countries during the last two decades, possibly because of the decline in suitable nest sites. Therefore, it is important to understand the factors affecting nest burrowing and nest hole characteristics for the Sand Martin. A smaller entrance hole would be beneficial for regulating the internal environment of the nest, whereas deeper nests are more advantageous against nest predators and parasites. We examined the general structure of Sand Martin colonies and determined if particle size, pH, or electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil and the location of the colony affects the morphology of Sand Martin nest holes. We hypothesized that the climate of near lakeshore and non-lakeshore differs; consequently, we predicted that Sand Martins would construct wider nest tunnel entrances in more humid environments near the lakeshore than further from the lake. We also hypothesized that a lower pH of clay loam soil would result in an increasing level of exchangeable aluminum (Al) and acidity, which in turn would promote soil aggregation. Because soils with a low EC are more stable and less prone to flooding or erosion, we predicted that Sand Martins in such soils would have deeper nesting burrows. A total of four colonies were located in the study area in Turkey. They contained 2510 burrows, of which 91.83% were used for breeding. The mean colony size was 627. We measured the soil and the nest burrow characteristics from the 80 nest bottoms used for breeding by the Sand Martin. The mean pH was 8.8, and the mean EC was 171. Tunnel depth was longer in nests with greater pH and EC and in lakeshore than in non-lakeshore colonies. The distance between nest holes increased with the EC, and nests were located nearer to each other in the lakeshore colonies than in non-lakeshore colonies. The width of the entrance opening increased with soil particle size and was wider in nests located at the lakeshore areas. Our results indicated that Sand Martins will avoid sites with too compact or loose soils for nesting, probably to avoid nest collapses. Vertical lakeshore embankments offer good nesting sites for Sand Martins and should, therefore, be protected. Because soil particle size, pH, EC, and distance from the lakeshore influenced the nest hole characteristics of the Sand Martin, conservation and management efforts should take these variables into account when maintaining or establishing suitable soil conditions for the Sand Martin.
... In addition to changes in production systems, global climate changes in recent years have become a key factor in spreading ectoparasites around the world [80,81], accelerating the development of hemoparasites within the vectors [82]. In general, PRM live well in temperatures ranging from 25 • C to 35 • C and relative humidity from 60% to 80%, so the rise in temperature, combined with changes in wind and rain, contribute to the increased dispersion of mites [83]. ...
Simple Summary
The mites that infest laying hens and broiler chickens in poultry farms have caused great inconvenience to the industry due to the difficulty of controlling or eliminating their populations within the production systems. Dermanyssus gallinae and Ornithonyssus spp. are the mites that mainly interfere with the health of the poultry, damaging the production and quality of the end product, with special emphasis on Ornithonyssus sylviarum and Ornithonyssus bursa. The objective of this article is to analyze the impact of hematophagous mites that infest commercial egg and meat production systems and the consequences of this form of parasitism, and discuss the chemical and non-chemical methods of control associated with the use of plants, entomopathogenic fungi, and products based on diatomaceous earth and synthetic silica, and new lines of research aimed at developing vaccines as a new way of controlling these pests.
Abstract
The blood-sucking mites Dermanyssus gallinae (“red mite”), Ornithonyssus sylviarum (“northern fowl mite”), and Ornithonyssus bursa (”tropical fowl mite”) stand out for causing infestations in commercial poultry farms worldwide, resulting in significant economic damage for producers. In addition to changes in production systems that include new concerns for animal welfare, global climate change in recent years has become a major challenge in the spread of ectoparasites around the world. This review includes information regarding the main form of controlling poultry mites through the use of commercially available chemicals. In addition, non-chemical measures against blood-sucking mites were discussed such as extracts and oils from plants and seeds, entomopathogenic fungi, semiochemicals, powder such as diatomaceous earth and silica-based products, and vaccine candidates. The control of poultry mites using chemical methods that are currently used to control or eliminate them are proving to be less effective as mites develop resistance. In contrast, the products based on plant oils and extracts, powders of plant origin, fungi, and new antigens aimed at developing transmission-blocking vaccines against poultry mites provide some encouraging options for the rational control of these ectoparasites.
... In addition to changes in production systems, global climate changes in recent years has become a key factor in the dispersion and distribution of ectoparasites around the world [71] [112], accelerating the development of hemoparasites within the vectors [12]. In general, RPMs live well in temperatures ranging from 25°C to 35°C and relative humidity from 60% to 80%, so the rise in temperature, combined with changes in wind and rain, are contributing to the increased dispersion of mites [21]. ...
The mites that infest laying hens and broiler chickens in poultry farms have caused great inconvenience to the industry due to the difficulty of controlling or eliminating their populations within the production systems. Dermanyssus gallinae and Ornithonyssus spp. are the mites that mainly interfere with the well-being of the poultry, harming the animals’ health and damaging the production and quality of the end product, with special emphasis on Ornithonyssus sylviarum and Ornithonyssus bursa. The objective of this article is to analyze the impact of hematophagous mites that infest commercial egg and meat production systems, the consequences of this form of parasitism, and discuss the methods of control it, including chemical and non-chemical means with the use of plants, entomopathogenic fungi, diatomaceious earth-based products and synthetic silica, and new lines of study aimed at developing vaccines as a new way of effectively controlling these pests.
... As nest-dwelling ectoparasites feed on nestlings, the number of nestlings in a nest is expected to modulate the presence of such parasites in the different habitats (Hurtrez-Bouss es et al., 1999;Arriero et al., 2008); we duly found that nests housing more fledglings were more frequently parasitised by fleas. Environmental factors, such as ambient temperature and humidity, may also play an important role in the presence of nest-dwelling ectoparasites in nests within a given habitat (Heeb et al., 2000;Castaño-V azquez et al., 2018Castaño-V azquez et al., , 2021Garrido-Bautista et al., 2020;Mennerat et al., 2021;Moreno-Rueda, 2021). A combination of these factors could explain why fleas and blowflies were more common in nests occupying the west-facing slope than those on the east-facing slope, as the latter produced fewer nestlings and a drier environment for ectoparasites. ...
Mediterranean woodland environments are characterised by high spatial and temporal heterogeneity, which means the inhabiting species face a wide variety of selective pressures. Species may respond differently to habitat heterogeneity and so distinct eco-evolutionary scenarios may be responsible for the inter-habitat variability in reproductive strategies observed in certain species. The inter-forest variability of some reproductive traits in passerines has been examined by comparing forest patches or separated fragments. However, there is still little information regarding how such highly mobile animals adjust their breeding performance across continuous and heterogeneous woodlands. Here we studied the reproductive performance of a population of Blue Tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) in an area of continuous Mediterranean woodland that included two mountain slopes and four different types of forest, ranging from deciduous oak forests to perennial non-oak forests. We studied the habitat heterogeneity and inter-forest phenotypic variation in terms of reproductive performance and adult and nestling biometry, besides also exploring the effects of ectoparasites on Blue Tit reproduction. Eggs were laid earliest in deciduous Pyrenean Oak (Quercus pyrenaica) forests, while clutch size and the number of fledglings were highest in the humid Pyrenean Oak forest, which had the greatest tree coverage and most humid climate, and lowest in the coniferous Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest. There were no inter-forest differences in hatching (percentage of nests with at least one egg hatched) and fledging (percentage of nests in which at least one nestling fledged) success. Similarly, there were no inter-forest differences in adult and nestling biometry, but adults that raised more fledglings had a lower body mass, while males whose females laid larger clutches had smaller tarsi. Most ectoparasites did not affect Blue Tit reproduction, although Culicoides had a negative impact on nestling body mass. These results suggest that Blue Tits can adjust their reproductive effort to the forest where they breed even across a very small spatial scale. Different eco-evolutionary scenarios, such as phenotypic plasticity or genetic structuring and local adaptation, might explain the phenotypic differentiation in the reproductive strategies observed over small areas in woodlands.
... Factors such as plant richness, vector species, temperature, and humidity in wild bird habitats contribute significantly to the prevalence and diversity of Haemoproteus spp. [30][31][32]. ...
Background
Avian haemosporidia infect both domestic and wild birds, causing anemia, acute tissue degeneration, and depopulation in wild birds. Poultry and wild birds have been reported as common reservoirs of haemosporidia, but limited information is available for red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) in China. The present study investigated the prevalence and molecular characterization of haemosporidia in red junglefowl.
Methods
Blood samples were collected from 234 red junglefowl from Jinghong City of Yunnan Province, and genomic DNA was extracted from these samples. The prevalence of haemosporidia was determined by nested PCR targeting the mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) gene. Molecular characterization was investigated based on phylogenetic analysis of cytb sequences, and associated risk factors were analyzed using the Chi-square (χ²) test.
Results
The overall prevalence of haemosporidia was 74.8% (175/234), and three species were identified, namely Haemoproteus enucleator, Leucocytozoon californicus, and Plasmodium juxtanucleare. The prevalence of haemosporidia in adult fowl (81.1%, 107/132) was significantly higher (χ² = 6.32, df = 1, P = 0.012) than that in juveniles (66.7%, 68/102). Three novel haemosporidian lineages were revealed.
Conclusions
This study examined the prevalence and identified species of avian haemosporidians in red junglefowl, providing new information on the molecular epidemiology and geographical distribution of haemosporidian parasites. Our results indicated high prevalence and diverse species distribution of these haemosporidians in red junglefowl. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first record of haemosporidian infection in red junglefowl in China.
Graphical Abstract
... This parasite can adversely affect growth and survival of nestlings (Richner et al. 1993). In addition, it has been shown that flea larvae abundance in blue tit nests can vary as a consequence of humidity levels in 2 different localities (Castaño-Vázquez et al. 2021). Haematophagous mites are a common pest of birds, causing anemia and even death to their hosts, being able to transmit several pathogens including viruses of human and animal importance and causing severe losses in poultry industry (Sigognault Flochay et al. 2017). ...
... Merino and Potti (1996) found a lower prevalence of 522 blowfly pupae in pied flycatcher nests during a colder and wet year. In the same way, Castaño-Vázquez et al. (2021) found a lower abundance of blowfly pupae in blue tit nests located in central Germany where humidity levels were higher compared to nests located in Spain. Thus, the increase in temperature and the reduction in rainfall across years appear to be favorable for blowfly infestation in blue tit nests. ...
... In addition, flea larvae were also positively related to temperature but not to rainfall. Although an appropriate temperature is also important for flea development, several studies have shown the importance of humidity for fleas (Heeb et al. 2000;Castaño-Vázquez et al. 2021) so it is curious that rainfall was not related with flea abundance. Probably, rainfall was not high enough to affect to development and abundance of fleas inside nests. ...
Models on climate change have predicted an increase of temperature over the earth's surface with potential drastic effects on living organisms. We analyzed the relationships between climatic conditions (temperature, rainfall and wind speed) and the abundance of blood-sucking flying insects (biting midges and blackflies) and nest-dwelling ectoparasites (mites, fleas and blowflies) collected from blue tit nests during bird breeding seasons for a period of ten years. Average temperature, rainfall and wind speed showed significant differences among years. Temperature and wind speed increased during the period of study while rainfall decreased. Biting midge, blackfly and blowfly abundances increased across years but not flea and mite abundances. Hatching date decreased and brood size increased across years. Independently of year variation, parasites were related to climatic variables. For example, biting midge, blowfly, mite and flea abundances were positive and significantly related to average temperature. We also found a positive and significant relationship between abundances of Haemoproteus infections and biting midge abundances during the first year of life of birds out of nests. However, abundance and prevalence of Lankesterella infections in yearlings were positive and significantly related to mite abundances during the year of birth of birds. Leucocytozoon and Lankesterella infections were also significantly related to climatic variables and Haemoproteus and Lankesterella infections increased across years. In addition, body condition of adult females and males were negatively related to flea larvae and blowfly abundance respectively. Nestling body condition was also negatively related to biting midge abundance. Changes in climatic conditions across years could therefore affect several parasites of birds but also to birds themselves.
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We explored the potential influence of temperature and precipitation on the abundance of two nest‐dwelling ectoparasites (blowflies and mites) of Eurasian blue tits ( Cyanistes caeruleus ) during a period of 21 years and compared the results with those of a shorter period. The abundance of blowflies was negatively related to precipitation, which could prevent flies from locating their host, and laying date. In addition, blowflies were positively related to brood size (more food implies more parasites) and the interaction between precipitation and temperature. The highest abundances of blowfly pupae were attained in conditions of increasing precipitation and decreasing temperature, which should be more common at the beginning of the bird breeding season. Mites were significantly and positively related to laying date and the interaction between average precipitation and temperature but only for the larger dataset. Higher abundances of mites were related to intermediate values of temperature and precipitations, conditions that are found at the end of the breeding season. These results imply that optimal conditions for both parasites differ, with blowflies preferring earlier breeders and colder and more humid conditions than mites. Thus, the effects of the climatic conditions studied on parasite abundances are non‐monotonic and can vary with years and parasite species. Finally, the fact that average temperature and precipitation decreases across the years of study is probably due to the advancement in Eurasian blue tit laying date because we calculated those variables for the period of birds’ reproduction. This earlier nesting does not affect parasite abundance.
Nestboxes are commonly used to increase the number and quality of nest sites available to birds that usually use tree cavities and are considered an important conservation intervention. Although usually safer than natural cavities, birds nesting in simple, unmodified wooden nestboxes remain at risk of depredation. Accordingly, numerous design and placement modifications have been developed to ‘predator-proof’ nestboxes. These include: (1) adding metal plates around entrance holes to prevent enlargement; (2) affixing wire mesh to side panels; (3) deepening boxes to increase distance to nest cup; (4) creating external entrance ‘tunnels’ or internal wooden ledges; (5) using more robust construction materials; (6) developing photosensitive shutters to exclude nocturnal predators; (7) using baffles to block climbing mammals; and (8) regular replacement and relocation. However, the benefits and costs of these modifications are not always well understood. In this global review, we collate information on predator-proofing avian nestboxes designed for tree cavity-nesting birds to assess the efficacy of techniques for different predators (mammalian, avian, and reptilian) in different contexts. We critique the potential for modifications to have unintended consequences—including increasing nest building effort, altering microclimate, reducing provisioning rate, and elevating ectoparasite and microbial loads—to identify hidden costs. We conclude by highlighting remaining gaps in knowledge and providing guidance on optimal modifications in different contexts.
Studies exploring the effect of microclimatic changes on host-parasite relationships are scarce, however, many models predict changes in the distribution and incidence of diseases associated with climate change. In this study, we increased both temperature and relative humidity in blue tit nest-boxes during the breeding season, trying to discern between the effect of both variables on the abundance of ectoparasites reported in previous studies and, also, on the body condition of the nestlings and adults. Temperature and relative humidity were experimentally increased an average of about 2ºC and 15 units respectively. The abundance of blowfly Protocalliphora azurea pupae was significantly reduced in nests with increased temperature as compared to control nests and nests with increased relative humidity, and was also significantly reduced in nests with increased relative humidity as compared to control nests. The abundance of Dermanyssus spp. mites and Ceratophyllus gallinae flea larvae was significantly reduced in nests with increased relative humidity. However, there was no significant effect of the experiment on flying insect vectors abundance (Blackflies and biting midges.). On the other hand, body condition and mass of nestlings were lower in nests with increased relative humidity and nestlings’ mass was also lower in heated nests. However, the body condition and mass of the adults was not significantly affected by the experiment. In addition, blowfly Protocalliphora azurea pupae and biting midges Culicoides spp. had a significant negative effect on body condition and mass of nestlings and adults. In conclusion, an increase in temperature, on the one hand, and relative humidity, on the other, reduces the abundance of ectoparasites, which suggests that these parasites are sensitive to sudden changes in the microclimate in which they develop. In addition, these fluctuations negatively affect the body condition and mass of blue tit nestlings despite the concurrent decrease of parasites in nests.
