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Cumulative incidence plot of first robbing behaviour performed by the focal subjects after watching a demonstrator (i.e. in the witness condition—WF). The curve represents the observed latency and dashed grey lines represent the proportion of robbing after 1, 3 and 15 min elapsed from the time the witness watched the demonstrator
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Animals use social information, available from conspecifics, to learn and express novel and adaptive behaviours. Amongst social learning mechanisms, response facilitation occurs when observing a demonstrator performing a behaviour temporarily increases the probability that the observer will perform the same behaviour shortly after. We studied “robb...
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... Interestingly, the macaques in the area just approached and followed the human when they brought food, but when they did not, they stayed at their position and left the human alone without causing a problem. Another study reported the stolen phenomenon (robbing) taken by macaques in Bali [36][37][38][39][40]. ...
The 2030 agenda for sustainable development, with its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), aims to meet people’s and nature’s needs. Macaque–Human Interaction (MHI) is connected between SDGs 15: Biodiversity and SDGs 3: Good health and well-being, that biodiversity and conservation are crucial to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for people. Kalisalak Forest is one of the habitats of a long-tailed macaque on Java Island that is also commonly used as a grand forest park for multiple visitation purposes. This species is now listed as endangered by IUCN Red List. The MHI is found on this site but has never been studied. This research conducted a quantitative approach that emphasizes the respondent experience of visitors by the Lemeshow formula with the survey technique and ad-libitum sampling method. Our results show that the interaction initiated by macaques tends to be affiliative, feeding from human food provisioned. Visitor dominants are local people, which are already accustomed to the presence of the macaques, so it may cause the interaction to be neutral. Besides, humans initiate macaques and tend to be neutral, walking. Macaques in this site were habituated to human presence, familiar, and attracted to provisioned food. In addition, this condition can probably influence zoonotic disease. In that respect, minimizing the disturbance of natural systems would significantly help prevent the emergence and spread of new pathogens causing such zoonotic diseases. Our recommendations need more emphasis on forest management to avoid the potential zoonotic disease based on that MHI.
... The adaptive values of behavioral synchronization, in pairs of conspecifics, at the group level, and across animal taxa, include decreased predation risk, reduced cost of food searching, more efficient communication, and enhanced social bonds (Duranton and Gaunet, 2016). A recent study demonstrated a dyadic response facilitation in the expression of object-robbing and object/food-bartering behaviors (i.e., an anthropogenically-impacted foraging strategy with possible nutritional benefits) in a population of free-ranging Balinese long-tailed macaques (Brotcorne et al., 2017(Brotcorne et al., , 2020. ...
... Third, in line with previous findings about the timing of the dyadic response facilitation in another form of object manipulation by freeranging Balinese long-tailed macaques (Brotcorne et al., 2020), we hypothesized an individual would engage in SH more rapidly after observing a conspecific performing SH than during the matched-control condition (i.e., a "When?" type of question; Hypothesis 4). Specifically, we expected the cumulative SH frequency distribution over time (i.e., latency of occurrence of the first SH bout performed by the witness subject) to be higher in the PW period than in the MC period (Prediction 4a). ...
... Specifically, we expected the cumulative SH frequency distribution over time (i.e., latency of occurrence of the first SH bout performed by the witness subject) to be higher in the PW period than in the MC period (Prediction 4a). We also expected the maximal difference between the cumulative PW and MC distributions of SH frequency (i.e., the highest response facilitation of SH occurrence) to be reached within the first two minutes following a SH bout performed by an initiator (Prediction 4b; see Brotcorne et al., 2020). ...
Social influence is at the core of the emergence and maintenance of behavioral traditions in various animal taxa. Response facilitation is a mechanism of social influence whereby observing a demonstrator performing a behavior temporarily increases the probability that the observer will perform the same behavior. We focused on stone handling (SH) behavior, a form of object-directed play routinely displayed by free-ranging long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Ubud, Bali, Indonesia. We tested whether the expression of SH was subject to dyadic response facilitation. We compared video-recorded focal samples of an individual immediately after they had witnessed a SH bout performed by a conspecific, and matched-control focal samples of the same witness in the absence of any surrounding SH bouts. We found converging evidence that SH was facilitated within pairs of individuals. First, SH occurred significantly more often and lasted significantly longer in the post-witnessing condition than in the matched-control condition. Second, a monkey initiated SH more rapidly in the former than in the latter, and this significant facilitation effect mainly occurred during the first two minutes after witnessing SH. By demonstrating that the expression of SH was socially mediated, we provided further support for the cultural nature of this behavior.
... Studies of wild primates living in highly anthropogenic and urban environments have also been fruitful, giving insights into how behavioral adaptations to these environments emerge and diffuse in wild populations. One example is the robbing and bartering behavior observed in long-tailed macaques living on temple grounds in Indonesia [63,64]. The fact that this behavior has emerged only in one population of Balinese long-tailed macaques, despite being possible at other sites, led researchers to suggest it could be a cultural behavior [63], a suggestion supported by evidence that expression of the behavior is socially facilitated [64]. ...
... One example is the robbing and bartering behavior observed in long-tailed macaques living on temple grounds in Indonesia [63,64]. The fact that this behavior has emerged only in one population of Balinese long-tailed macaques, despite being possible at other sites, led researchers to suggest it could be a cultural behavior [63], a suggestion supported by evidence that expression of the behavior is socially facilitated [64]. Beyond its interest as a potential cultural behavior, robbing and bartering also provide an insight into economic decision-making in primates [65]. ...
Studies of wild non-human primates have yielded groundbreaking insights into social learning and social cognition. These studies have the benefit of placing the animal within its natural social and broader environmental context, with factors such as group composition, dispersal, presence of predators, and environmental change offering unique study opportunities that are either challenging or impossible to replicate in captivity. Novel statistical techniques and technologies have recently facilitated studies into social learning in wild primates that would previously have been out of reach. Finally, the increasing use of controlled experiments with wild populations offers the possibility of generating findings directly comparable to those in captivity, that have the potential to highlight differences in the cognitive abilities of wild versus captive individuals.
... The site is a shrub forest and rocky dry area, called Uluwatu Temple, and is located in Badung Regency in southern tip of Bali. Uluwatu Temple is 97 m above sea level with a macaque population of around 330 individual [17]. The other dry area chosen was located on the small island, named Nusa Penida, as a karst area with range of temperature, humidity, and rainfall of 29-30°C, 85-90%, and 85-345 mm, respectively, located to the southeast of Bali, and belongs to the Klungkung Regency area of Bali Province. ...
Background and Aim: Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a zoonotic infectious inflammatory brain disease caused by the JE virus (JEV). Considerable research into the seroprevalence of JE in domestic animals has been conducted, but there have been no reports of its occurrence in wild animals, including long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). This study aimed to estimate the seroprevalence of JEV infection and its determinants in long-tailed macaques in Bali and the prevalence of mosquito vectors.
Materials and Methods: Blood samples (3 mL) were collected from a population of M. fascicularis (92 heads) inhabiting a small forest with irrigated rice field nearby (wetland area) in Ubud, Gianyar, and from two populations in dryland areas with no wet rice field (Uluwatu, Badung, and Nusa Penida, Bali Province, Indonesia). The collected sera were tested for antibodies against JEV using a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit (qualitative monkey JE Immunoglobulin G antibody kit). The seropositivity of the antibodies was then compared based on different variables, namely, habitat type, age, and sex.
Results: The seroprevalence of the JEV antibodies in all the samples tested was found to be 41.3%. The seropositivity of the monkey serum samples collected from the wetland area was 46.4%, which was higher than the seropositivity of the sera samples collected from the dried field areas (1.25%). Monkey sera collected from the wetland areas were 6.1 times (odds ratio [OR]: 6.1; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.71-51.5, p>0.05) more likely to be seropositive compared to the monkey sera collected from the dried field areas. Meanwhile, female monkeys were 1.79 times (OR: 1.79; 95% CI: 0.76-4.21; p>0.05) more likely to be seropositive to JEV than males. Similarly, juvenile monkeys were 2.38 times (OR: 2.38; 95% CI: 0.98-5.79); p>0.05) more likely to be seropositive against the JEV than adult monkeys. However, none of these differences achieved statistical significance. Regarding the JEV mosquito vector collection, more Culex mosquitoes were found in the samples from the wetland areas than from the dried field areas.
Conclusion: The study confirms the existence of JEV infection in long-tailed macaques in Bali. There were patterned seropositivity differences based on habitat, age, and sex of the monkeys, but these were not significant. The possibility of monkeys as a JEV reservoir and the presence of the mosquitoes as the JEV vector are suggested but require more study to confirm.
... Our first aim is to establish a set of metrics that future work on robbing and bartering can use to structure research questions and hypotheses. This step contributes to a crucial "natural history" stage expanding baseline knowledge of robbing and bartering 16 , which has only recently come under systematic study 1,4 . Therefore, we ask first, is there variation in robbing and bartering parameters that we can observe at group or individual levels? ...
... The fact that this pattern was not observed in Celagi may be relevant when we consider robbing and bartering as a cultural behavior whose www.nature.com/scientificreports/ practice is tied more closely to group cultural norms than to individual status markers such as dominance 4 . More work is needed to elucidate the impact of these cultural forces on observed patterns of robbing and bartering. ...
... Thus, robbing and bartering practices for each group are likely to vary over time as group composition and individual robbing propensities change. Such dynamism at the individual level, and its relation to group-level outcomes, lends further credence to the suggestion that robbing and bartering is a cultural behavior with socially influenced exhibition patterns 1,4 . ...
Robbing and bartering is a habitual behavior among free-ranging long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) at a single site in Bali, Indonesia. The behavior consists of three main elements: (1) a macaque takes an item from a human; (2) the macaque maintains possession of the item; then (3) the macaque releases or hands off the item after accepting a food offer from a human. In this paper, we analyze data on individual variation in robbing and bartering among subadult males in relation to dominance rank. Using focal animal sampling we collected 197 observation hours of data on 13 subadult males from two groups (6 from Celagi; 7 from Riting) at the Uluwatu temple site from May 2017 to March 2018, recording 44 exchanges of items for food from 92 total robberies following 176 total attempts. We also measured dominance rank using interaction data from our focal animals. Dominance rank was strongly positively correlated with robbery efficiency in Riting, but not Celagi, meaning that more dominant Riting subadult males exhibited fewer overall robbery attempts per successful robbery. We suggest the observed variation in robbing and bartering practices indicates there are crucial, yet still unexplored, social factors at play for individual robbing and bartering decisions.
... Long-tailed macaques are reported to live more frequently in the forest with the changes that occur. Among them are close to the local human habitat (Richard et al., 1989;Tsuji & Ilham, 2021) and feeding when the Macaca fascicularis habitat is in a tourist park location, for example, which allows for more frequent interaction with humans (human-primate interaction) (Brotcorne et al., 2020;Gruber et al., 2019;Gursky-Doyen & Supriatna, 2010;Ilham et al., 2017;Tsuji & Ilham, 2021). Gogoi & Das (2018) reported feeding a group of Macaca fascicularis at Navagraha Temple, Kamrup district of Assam, India, recorded daily for 2-4 hours, with the type of feeding given to visitors in the form of snacks, bananas, biscuits, cakes, chips. ...
The long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis Raffles, 1821) is a non-human primate (NHP) species with social status in its group. Macaca fascicularis living in groups and social castes. Alpha males lead their group. Alpha males will have greater access to food than individuals with lower social castes. The content of feed eaten by animals, of course, will affect health. Various biological processes occur, from the food eaten by animals to affect the health of human life. If the food eaten is toxic, it will be hazardous to the animal's metabolism for life. According to a Muslim perspective, how much better food can be eaten is included in Halal products. Including, in this case, food ingredients for feed, if it comes from ingredients that are included in the halal category, this will provide animal welfare. This study seeks to explain how visitors' feed types (provisioning food) to alpha-male Macaca fascicularis at Mbah Agung Karangbanar Recreation Forest, Banyumas, Central Java, Indonesia. This study used behavioral coding to measure the frequency and quantity of eating behavior for ten days based on visitor feeding. The remainder of the provisioning food found is recorded as data on the type of provisioning food. Based on the study results, the alpha-male was noted to eat provisioning food such as peanuts, bananas, sweet potatoes, snacks, and foods mixed with soy sauce given by visitors. All of them are halal because they eat visitors every time they come to a tourist location. Alpha-male was noted to have no interest in the carcasses found, so they did not eat them. Keywords:
... Moreover, the second most frequent activity is moving 11.1%. [17,21] explains that moving behavior includes climbing, jumping, walking, and moving places. Based on the observations in this study, Long-tailed macaques often move around for search of food and for another activities, such as playing and mating. ...
The research was conducted in Mount Rinjani National Park, Lombok Timur, to observe the daily activities of Long-tailed macaque in utilizing their habitat and vocalization analysis as a hallmark of species. The Long-tailed macaque’ activities were analyzed using the scan sampling method. Ten (10) individuals of Long-tailed macaque were observed. The results showed that the observed activities of Long-tailed macaque were feeding, sleeping, inactive, grooming, mating, moving, excretion, playing, making sound, and agonistic (fighting). The average percentage of Long-tailed macaque observed was feeding (10.1%), sleeping (9%), inactive (9.4%), grooming (14.9%), mating (8.5%), moving (11.1%), excretion (7.9%), playing (9.7%), making sound (9.5%), and agonistic (9.9%). The daily activities can be as a reference in detecting the ‘species’ of the Long-tailed macaque . To support the population of this species, especially for long-term survival, the manager of the Rinjani Nasional Park should preserve the forest with conservation of natural forests and wildlife or biodiversity conservation and ecotourism, also prevent littering and illegal activities.
... fascicularis) of Bali are notorious for engaging in close contact with visitors in an environment with low rates of staff intervention. In Padangtegal, for example, macaques are provisioned throughout the temple complex several times per day by the local staff (Brotcorne et al. 2020;Fuentes 2006;Lane et al. 2010). Tourists are also not only permitted but also encouraged to feed the monkeys. ...
... Tourists are also not only permitted but also encouraged to feed the monkeys. In the event that a macaque steals any personal belongings from a tourist, staff use small bags of peanuts to coax the monkey to return the item (Brotcorne et al. 2020;Peterson and Fuentes 2018). Primate aggression toward humans by the macaques is frequent, especially when food is present, and minor bites and scratches that break tourists' skin are not uncommon. ...
A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-021-00225-3
... fascicularis) of Bali are notorious for engaging in close contact with visitors in an environment with low rates of staff intervention. In Padangtegal, for example, macaques are provisioned throughout the temple complex several times per day by the local staff (Brotcorne et al. 2020;Fuentes 2006;Lane et al. 2010). Tourists are also not only permitted but also encouraged to feed the monkeys. ...
... Tourists are also not only permitted but also encouraged to feed the monkeys. In the event that a macaque steals any personal belongings from a tourist, staff use small bags of peanuts to coax the monkey to return the item (Brotcorne et al. 2020;Peterson and Fuentes 2018). Primate aggression toward humans by the macaques is frequent, especially when food is present, and minor bites and scratches that break tourists' skin are not uncommon. ...
Conservationists continue to grapple with the practical risks that accompany ecotourism initiatives, where access to threatened ecosystems is exchanged for financial support for both protected areas and local communities. One of the most practical ways to mitigate the potentially harmful effects of an increasing number of visitors is to identify problematic human behaviors and attempt to limit them through education or staff intervention. We observed the behavior of both visitors and macaques in a hybrid group (Macaca fascicularis × M. nemestrina) at Sepilok Orang-utan Rehabilitation Center in Sabah, Malaysia over a period of 10 months to better understand patterns in tourist-directed aggression. We witnessed 307 encounters between macaques and tourists but intense aggression was absent. Overall rates of minor visitor-directed aggression were low, with only 0.71 bouts observed per hour. Eye contact between tourists and macaques was associated with significantly higher odds of experiencing minor human-directed aggression, such as an open mouth threat. Taking a picture, however, was associated with reduced odds of experiencing aggression from the macaques. Tourists were not able to provision the animals, which may help explain the lower rates of intense aggression compared to those at other tourist sites. Although improved education signs and staff supervision could further reduce visitor-directed aggression at Sepilok, these results are promising because they highlight the role that relatively simple policies (such as those that forbid provisioning by tourists) can play in reducing unwanted behavior by both humans and nonhuman primates at ecotourism locations.
... The macaques have learned to steal inedible objects such as glasses and hats from tourists and barter the objects for food with the staff. This innovation has been socially learned and has spread in the group, suggesting that human-macaque interactions in tourism can cause significant cultural change in a macaque group [61]. ...
... As a consequence, the population of macaques will keep growing [39,47]. Macaques may also develop adaptive behaviors, including aggressive behavior, in continuous interactions with humans [18,61]. ...
... Wildlife can actively develop adaptive behaviors in anthropogenic environments to maximize its own benefits [18]. More humanwildlife interactions provide more opportunities for wildlife to acquire more adaptations [17], such as the robbing and bartering behaviors of long-tailed macaques in Bali [61]. This adaptation and evolution, when combined with coercive institutional protection, give wildlife many advantages in conflicts with humans and make the conflict unmanageable and uncontrollable, as in the case of Nanwan. ...
Human–wildlife conflict is a barrier to achieving sustainable biodiversity conservation and community development in protected areas. Tourism is often regarded as a tool to mitigate such conflict. However, existing studies have mainly adopted a socio-economic perspective to examine the benefits of tourism for communities, neglecting the ecological effects of tourism. This case study of macaque tourism on a peninsula in China illustrates that tourism can escalate rather than mitigate human–wildlife conflict. Fifty-three stakeholders were interviewed and secondary data were collected to understand the development of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) tourism and community–macaque conflict. The results show that food provision and tourist–macaque interactions rapidly increased the macaques’ population, habituation, and aggressive behaviors, which led them to invade the surrounding community more often and exacerbated human–macaque conflict. Meanwhile, low community participation in tourism generated few benefits for residents and did not help alter residents’ hostile attitudes towards the macaques. Local residents gradually retreated from agriculture as the macaques became more intrusive. A holistic approach to evaluating the role of wildlife tourism in resolving community–wildlife conflict is proposed and practical suggestions for alleviating such conflict are given.
