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![Figure 4. Position of hardness measurement [36].](publication/348940847/figure/fig2/AS:989385453486081@1612899282202/Position-of-hardness-measurement-36_Q320.jpg)
The influences of the pin geometry and rotational speed on the microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of the AA 5052-H112 FSSW joint were investigated. Results showed that hook height and fully bonded region (FBR) width were significantly dependent by both pin geometry and rotational speeds. Both pin geometry and tool rotational speed h...
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The best aluminum alloys for construction are those that incorporate copper. However, welding engineers find it difficult to join aluminium and its alloys as a result of cracking. One of the popular methods for joining nonferrous materials, especially aluminum alloys, is friction stir welding (FSW). A tensile strength of 75 % to 85 % of the basic m...
The trade-off between welding and strength loss during dissimilar metals joining has been important for decades. Strength loss minimization is essential for industries. The current study investigates the microstructure clarification in the nugget zone (NZ) of AA7075/AZ31B dissimilar friction stir welded joints with or without ultrasonic vibration (...
Joining of metal is very important operation in every manufacturing activity. Conventional welding of Al alloys by Tungsten inert gas welding, Metal inert gas welding and Resistance spot welding was reported to produce poor quality weld joints, as the inherent characteristics of the base metal affected the weld properties. Friction stir welding, id...
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Citations
... Koilraj et al [7] observed that the cylindrical threaded pin tool profile among all the different pin profiles tested was the most effective in improving mechanical properties. Tiwan et al [8] observed that the weld strength was significantly affected by both the tool rotational speed and the pin geometry. A step pin welds created with a cylindrical pin exhibited higher strength. ...
This research explores the multifaceted analysis of a friction-welded joint, employing Central Composite Design of Response Surface Methodology. The study integrates microstructural investigations and fracture analyses to explain the effect of process parameters on mechanical properties. The optimum settings for Friction Stir Welding of AA7075 and AA8090 were determined by assessing desirability indices. These settings comprised a tool rotation speed of 1927.7 rpm, a tool travel speed of 35 mm min⁻¹, and a tool tilt angle of 0.9°. This specific combination yielded a noteworthy combined desirability index of 0.79, considering both Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and Tensile Elongation (TE). Microstructural examinations revealed distinct characteristics in the Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ), Thermo-Mechanically Affected Zone (TMAZ), and Nugget Zone (NZ). Notably, fine grain structure in the NZ was attributed to the stirring effect created by the tool pin. Fracture analyses indicated ductile fractures, with dimple size variation correlating to tensile strength. Lower dimple density in low-strength joints suggested insufficient material mixing during welding. The maximum tensile strength sample exhibited a high dimple density. These findings contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the welding process’s influence on microstructure and fracture characteristics, providing valuable insights for optimizing mechanical properties in friction-welded joints.
... However, the increased hardness of the SZ was mostly due to the development of dynamically recrystallized equiaxed fine grains and the potential intermetallic fragmentation process that occurred during the stirring action [15][16][17]. ...
The friction stir welding (FSW) procedure is the main topic of this research study among the various welding techniques. The study focuses on the interaction between the mechanical properties of 3003 aluminum alloy and the process parameters (rotation speed, welding speed, and dwell time) in the form of rolled plates of 2 mm thickness, end-to-end and welded at 90° and 45°. The welds were made by varying the speed of rotation (1000, 2000 rpm) and setting the tool feed at 500 mm/min. This experimental approach is also based on varying the tilt of the welding tool from 0° to 2°. It has been shown that the studied parameters play an important role in the characterization and optimization of the above mentioned weld joints. Therefore, and based on the results obtained, the use of the 90° joint remains the best in terms of strength.
... Cracks are critical and must be eliminated or rigorously controlled. However, detecting them with non-destructive techniques (NDT) can be challenging due to their size and internal location [57][58][59][60]. ...
The quality of welds is critical to the safety of structures in construction, so early detection of irregularities is crucial. Advances in machine vision inspection technologies, such as deep learning models, have improved the detection of weld defects. This paper presents a new CNN model based on ResNet50 to classify four types of weld defects in radiographic images: crack, pore, non-penetration, and no defect. Stratified cross-validation, data augmentation, and regularization were used to improve generalization and avoid over-fitting. The model was tested on three datasets, RIAWELC, GDXray, and a private dataset of low image quality, obtaining an accuracy of 98.75 %, 90.255 %, and 75.83 %, respectively. The model proposed in this paper achieves high accuracies on different datasets and constitutes a valuable tool to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of quality control processes in the welding industry. Moreover, experimental tests show that the proposed approach performs well on even low-resolution images.
... Aluminium alloys find widespread use in the construction of chemical plants and appliances used in the food industry. Moreover, certain aluminum-based compositions are utilized in aircraft construction, whereas others are employed to produce automobile components and lightweight structures [3]. Yet some kinds are utilized as a middle layer to promote mechanical bonding between incompatible materials [4]. ...
As compared to traditional fusion welding processes, electron beam welding (EBW) is known to produce structurally robust microstructures and narrow heat-affected zone (HAZ) in metals. The process becomes more significant for the tempered alloys vulnerable to heat exposure. In the present investigation, Al 2219-T6 alloy was joined using the EBW process. The microstructural, mechanical, and nanomechanical characteristics of the resulting joint were investigated. EBW resulted in a narrow HAZ (22 μm) with a 430 mm fusion zone (FZ). A dendritic structure was observed in the FZ zone, while second-phase particles were absent indicating their dissolution during welding and interesting formation of Al2Cu mixture around the dendrites. The limited content of Cu in the base metal (BM) resulted in the formation of a solid solution in the FZ, along with the presence of fine equiaxed grains in the HAZ and equiaxed dendritic grains in the FZ zone. The X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the absence of peaks corresponding to incoherent phases in the FZ. Compared to the BM, micro-hardness measurements revealed a 12.7 % increase in the hardness in the HAZ, while a significant decrease of approximately 19 % was observed in the FZ. The joint exhibited reduced tensile strength, ultimate strength by 42.2 %, and yield strength by 47.3 % when compared to the BM. The fracture analysis indicated a ductile failure mode with the presence of microvoids. Nano-indentation tests at various loads demonstrated a decrease in the nanohardness from the BM to the HAZ and FZ regions. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis revealed significant pile-ups in the FZ, indicating the occurrence of plastic deformation during the welding process. The presented findings are valuable for the joint and structure design of Al −2219T6 alloy in particular and other Al alloys in general.
... FW has a very strong bond because the fully bonded region is highly dependent on the pin geometry and the rotational speed of the machine [7]. Described in detail as well as difficulties in intermetallic layers, welding processes, and interfacial stresses [8]. ...
Friction stir (FW) welding is a relatively fresh method that was created and has been continually refined and adapted to industrial applications due to its benefits. This approach for solid-state joining entails connecting the components at a temperature below their melting point and then heating them up. Clamp joint applications are widely used using external heating and hitting with high strength, but the clamped joints with the FW method are rarely done. The research studied the characteristic of clamped joints at various plate thicknesses using the FW method. In this study, 30 specimens were used in the form of a St.37 low carbon steel plate with a size of 50 mm x 100 mm and a thickness of 3 mm, 5 mm, and 9 mm, and several holes were made with a diameter of 5 mm. The plate was connected by 2 clamps, and 4 clamps then the FW method was conducted in a milling machine. The results indicate that the plates were connected well. The highest hardness value was 256.4 VHN on the FW of 9 mm plate. The microstructure is dominated by ferrite and a little pearlite phase. The largest shear force is 66.54 kN obtained at 4 clamps with a plate thickness of 9 mm, and the lowest is 13.46 kN, obtained at 2 clamps with a plate thickness of 3 mm.
... They reported that the strength of welds prepared using a cylindrical pin was higher compared to that with a step pin. In addition, the tensile shear and cross-tension loads of the welds increased for increasing rotational speed from 900 rpm to 1400 rpm then it decreased until 1800 rpm [42]. Paidar et al. studied the friction spot extrusion welding-brazing (FSEW-B) process for joining AA5083-H112 aluminium alloy and pure copper with a zinc interlayer. ...
... It can also be explained by the larger size of the stirring zone (Tab. 2) [42,70]. ...
... It can be related to the reduction of cross-tension strength compared to the case of the weld produced at 1000 rpm. Similar results had already been observed by Badarinarayan et al. [29] and Tiwan et al. [42]. ...
The application of joining processes requires advanced mechanical tests to control the joints’ quality. Generally, welded sheets are verified using tensile shear tests. However, few studies also recommend conducting tension peel and cross-tension tests. The present work evaluates the mechanical behaviour of 5754 aluminium sheets jointed by friction stir spot welding (FSSW). The influence of the rotational speed on joint strength was first compared to riveted assemblies. Then, sheets welded with pure copper interlayers were compared to the precedents. The results indicated that, without an interlayer, lower and intermediate rotational speeds lead to higher mechanical strength under tensile shear tests compared to riveted assembly. However, it performed worse under tension peel and cross-tension tests at all studied rotational speeds. By adding copper, the strength of welded sheets is globally improved under tensile shear tests. Nevertheless, under tension peel and cross-tension tests, it performed worse, although a slight improvement was observed for increasing rotational speeds. Two different failure morphologies and four fracture modes were observed regarding the different tested samples. Microhardness tests were also conducted, to relate the influence of the studied parameters on the joint’s strength.
... The grain boundaries in the area of BM are filled with a number of Law Angle Boundaries (LABs) [15]. The microstructure in the area of BM is also seen to be elongated and the particle phase is parallel to the rolling direction of the materials [17]. The microstructure in the area of Weld Nugget is seen as slightly smoother when compared to the TMAZ and HAZ areas. ...
Welding of aluminum alloy materials is often used in the industrial world, including those engaged in shipping, aircraft, and others. The welding method used to bind aluminum materials is Friction Stir Welding (FSW). Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a simple welding method, namely by utilizing the heat energy generated from the friction of the shoulder tool with the material being welded. This study aimed to determine the effect of tool rotation on the physical and mechanical properties of Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum AA5052. The material used in this study was aluminum with the series AA5052 as the primary material. The friction stir welding process was carried out using CnC milling with parameters of the tool rotation speed of 1000, 1200, and 1500 rpm and a feed rate of 25 mm/minute. Physical analysis was carried out using macro photo observations with a USB Digital Microscope and microstructural observations with optical metallography. Mechanical observations were carried out using tensile testing and hardness testing. The microstructure in the weld nugget area shows good results with fine and dense grains that occur due to the dynamic recrystallization process. The highest tensile strength is 102.49 MPa in the 1000 rpm parameter. This is due to the material mixing process and good heat transfer.
... For example, reducing the weight of vehicles used in aviation and aerospace [1,2]. In order to achieve this goal, some light metal materials were used to produce some parts in the structure and body of the vehicles for aviation and aerospace, such as aluminum alloy and magnesium alloy materials [3][4][5]. As we all know, aluminum alloy sheets are one of the cheaper light metal materials, and they are widely used in vehicles for the aviation and aerospace industries to reduce their weight. ...
Aiming at the enhancement of the lightweight formability potential of aluminum alloy, the bulging and tensile properties of a 5052 Aluminum alloy sheet were tested on a microcomputer controlled sheet metal forming tester and tensile testing machine. The effects of different blank holder force, punch velocity and lubrication conditions were investigated on bulging properties by the experimental analysis. The cupping values (Erichsen Cupping Index: IE) of sheets with a thickness of 1.2 mm at room temperature were obtained under different process parameters. Meanwhile, the anisotropic property of the material was analyzed in different rolling directions. The results show that the sheet cupping values increase with the increase of blank holder force and punch velocity, and the stress state was changed due to the changing of the blank holder force and strain rate. Moreover, the use of lubricating conditions with a lower coefficient of friction allows the sheet to exhibit a larger cupping value. The effect of rolling direction on the anisotropy of 5052 aluminum alloy sheet is distinct, which means in the aluminum alloy sheet forming process the anisotropy factor should be carefully considered.
... The welded joints using a cylindrical pin tool exhibited maximum values of tensile shear of 3589N and cross-tension loads of 3419 N at 1400 RPM . Two types of fracture modes are observed: de-bonding and pull-out of nugget fractures [20]. However, welding of similar and dissimilar materials using the friction stir technique may reduce the joint strength due to the stress concentration generated from the pin trace. ...
This work aims to join sheets of carbon steel to aluminum alloy AA6061. A lap joint arrangement was used with a joint lap area of dimensions * 25 25 mm . The joining procedure was carried out using a rotating tool of 10 mm shoulder diameter. Three process parameters, with three levels for each parameter, were selected to investigate their effects on joints quality. The parameter’s levels for each experiment were designed using the design of the experiment method (DOE). The results indicated that the two materials were joined by a mechanical interlock at an interface line, without formation of intermetallic compounds. The shear force of the joint reached an ultimate value of. 482kN . The shear force of the joint improved by increasing plunging depth of the tool. Samples of minimum shear force value failed by a pull-outing aluminum metal from the carbon steel specimen. Samples of higher shear force value exhibited a shear mode of fracture. Increasing the rotating speed and decreasing pre-heating increased the process temperature.
... When the tool first made contact with the workpiece, the temperature curve exhibited some fluctuation for a short period of time, but after that, the curve rose smoothly, and continued to do so until the tool started plunging. During plunging of the tool in the workpieces, the temperature profile showed fluctuations, and the observations were consistent with those of Ilman et al. [27]. The authors are of the opinion that the FSSW process is similar to the drilling process, which involves plunging of a rotating tool into the material of the workpiece and the generation of unequal and significant forces; hence, the fluctuation in the temperature profile was obtained until the stirring stage. ...
Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) is one of the most popular fusion joining processes. The process is a solid-state welding process that allows welding of weldable as well as non-weldable materials. As a part of this investigation, weld samples of Al6061-T6 were reinforced with silicon carbide (SiC) powder with an average particle size of 45 µm. Initially, a Taguchi L9 orthogonal array was developed with three factors, i.e., rotational speed of the tool, pre-dwelling time, and diameter of the hole that was filled with SiC before welding. The effects of the SiC particles and process parameters were investigated as tensile–shear load and micro-hardness. The optimisation of parameters in order to maximise the output responses—i.e., strength and hardness of the welded joints—was performed using a hybrid WASPAS–Taguchi method. The optimised process parameters obtained were a 3.5 mm guiding hole diameter, 1700 rpm tool rotation speed, and 14 s of pre-dwelling time.
