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![Correlogram of mean pairwise kinship coefficient (Fij\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$F_{ij}$$\end{document}) between Qualea grandiflora adult trees for six distance classes of Cerrado and roadside. Confidence intervals around each Fij\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$F_{ij}$$\end{document}-value were obtained through a jackknife procedure over loci](publication/335474265/figure/fig2/AS:961392911867942@1606225340969/Correlogram-of-mean-pairwise-kinship-coefficient-Fijdocumentclass12ptminimal.png)
Correlogram of mean pairwise kinship coefficient (Fij\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$F_{ij}$$\end{document}) between Qualea grandiflora adult trees for six distance classes of Cerrado and roadside. Confidence intervals around each Fij\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$F_{ij}$$\end{document}-value were obtained through a jackknife procedure over loci
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Forest fragmentation may affect mating and pollen dispersal patterns through conversion of continuous forests into small, spatially isolated remnant patches and individual trees in an anthropogenic landscape. We investigated reproductive investment and success, pollen dispersal, mating system, and genetic diversity and spatial structure of Qualea g...
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Pollen-flowers with heteromorphic stamens have been shown to promote an intrafloral division of labour as a solution to fitness costs arising from pollen consumption by bees, known as the pollen dilemma. Usually, the division is based on morphological differences in anther and pollen traits that correlate with stamen function: pollinating anthers a...
Citations
... The analysis of reproductive success, pollen dispersal and mating system of Qualea grandiflora trees revealed that the mean pollen dispersal distance (524.7 m) and the effective number of pollen donors per mother-tree (Nep = 12.7) were higher than for roadside trees (60.9 m, Nep = 4.6). The results indicated that the spatial isolation of roadside trees decreased pollinator movements (Potascheff et al. 2019). ...
Microsatellites are short sequence repeats that make up the genomes of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. They are of great importance as DNA markers for studies in several fields of genetics. In the present review, we searched for studies published in the five years period of 2017 to 2021 regarding the use of microsatellites in studies with forest tree species from the Brazilian biomes, in order to examine the importance of these markers for forest resources conservation. We searched scientific papers in journals indexed on the Scopus and Web of Science databases. There were found 38 peer reviewed articles that used microsatellites in the Brazilian biomes. The Atlantic Forest was the biome with more studies (35.9 %) and most of the studies were published in 2018 (34.2 %). In addition, most of the studied species belonged to the Fabaceae family (34.2 %). The conclusions and recommendations made in these studies ratify the great contribution of microsatellite markers in the conservation of native forest species in Brazilian biomes.
Keywords:
Brazilian ecosystems; genetic diversity; genetic structure; forest conservation; SSR markers
... The demographic growth, economic, industrial, and urban development associated with human consumption have resulted in continuous and increasing pressure on natural resources. The impacts of these anthropic activities are the greatest threats to biological biodiversity worldwide (Mehring et al. 2020) due to deforestation, resulting in spatially isolated patches of forests or trees across the fragmented landscapes (Lander et al. 2010;Aguilar et al. 2019;Cuénin et al. 2019;Potascheff et al. 2019). The Brazilian savanna is the second largest Neotropical biome, covering about 200 million hectares (Strassburg et al. 2017), with some 160,000 species of plants, animals, and fungi, a remarkable floristic heterogeneity and high level of endemism (Myers et al. 2000). ...
Key message
Although all populations show extensive pollen immigration, the occurrence of spatial genetic structure and biparental inbreeding decreased genetic diversity and effective population size.
Abstract
The Brazilian savanna is the second largest Neotropical biome, and a globally important biodiversity hotspot. Basic knowledge of the ecology and genetics of its species can help conserve this important biome. We investigated genetic diversity, spatial genetic structure (SGS), pollen dispersal, and mating system in three Hymenaea stigonocarpa populations (AS, PE, IT) in the Brazilian savanna, using microsatellite loci and samples of adult trees from all populations and seeds from the IT population. As a result of the long geographic distance between populations, the genetic differentiation among them was high (0.397). Individuals of the IT population presented a grouped distribution due to root propagation, resulting in low genotypic richness (GR\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\mathrm{GR}$$\end{document} = 0.194) and allelic richness (R\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$R$$\end{document} = 4), and high SGS (Sp\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\mathrm{Sp}$$\end{document} = 0.064) compared to AS and PE (GR\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\mathrm{GR}$$\end{document} > 0.98, R > 5, Sp\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\mathrm{Sp}$$\end{document} < 0.026) populations. The IT population showed high pollen immigration (46.4%), pollen dispersal distance (up to 3.57 km), and outcrossing rate (0.934–1.0), but matings were correlated (0.01–1), and some occurred among relatives (up to 0.098), resulting in some inbred seeds (0.140), a lower variance effective population size (Ne\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${N}_{e}$$\end{document} = 3.02) than expected with random mating, and an estimate of 50 seed-trees required to retain an Ne\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${N}_{e}$$\end{document} of 150 in samples of maternal progeny. The estimated minimum viable area to retain a reference (Ner\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${N}_{\mathrm{er}}$$\end{document}) of 1000 indicates that the current AS and IT population areas are insufficient to maintain viable populations in the long-term, demonstrating the importance of maintaining surrounding areas for conservation of these H. stigonocarpa populations.
... Given the low dispersal efficiency by pollen and seeds and the low number of migrants, there are two main, not mutually exclusive, possibilities for the low genetic structure we found among populations from RPU. The first is the occurrence of stepping stones among larger populations, possibly connecting them through gene flow (Lander et al., 2010;Potascheff et al., 2019). The second is the maintenance of ancestral polymorphism through clonal reproduction which conserves similar genotypes in different populations, even with a low number of migrants per generation (Van Drunen et al., 2015). ...
The movement of organisms or genes among resource patches is fundamental to the persistence of natural populations over time. Species occurring in rock outcrops may have difficulty maintaining genetic connectivity due to the natural disjunct distribution of these formations, which may lead to genetic differentiation. In this study, we tested the hypothesis of genetic isolation among populations of Deuterocohnia meziana on rock outcrops in Brazil. We evaluated genetic diversity and structure, number of migrants, and the contribution of pollen and seed to dispersal. Additionally, we used niche modelling to estimate the potential distribution of D. meziana and combined this with genetic data to identify potential dispersal routes under different climatic scenarios from the Quaternary. Deuterocohnia meziana showed high diversity and moderate genetic structure, low number of migrants and more efficient dispersal by pollen. Only populations separated by > 70 km showed genetic differentiation. Dispersal routes varied mainly in the intensity of the environmental suitability and indicated the present scenario as the most favourable for gene flow in D. meziana. Our findings contribute to the understanding of processes related to the connectivity and isolation of naturally fragmented populations, highlighting the role of biotic and abiotic drivers for genetic differentiation.
... In addition, soil removal for the translocation process can include many soil layers, leading to the removal of nutrients and reducing the viability of plant maintenance in the degraded area. Quantifying the impact of habitat degradation on forest remnants not only helps to assess the consequences of these changes, but also contributes to the conservation of remnants and the development of effective and sustainable strategies for the management of genetic resources of species that inhabit degraded landscapes [21,[26][27][28][29][30]. ...
Gene flow studies provide information on gene exchange between populations, which is essential for developing genetic conservation strategies. Such analyses enable a better understanding of the life history and seed and pollen dispersal mechanisms of plant species. In this study, we investigate pollen and seed flow in a regenerant population of the pioneer species Astronium fraxinifolium in an area degraded during the construction of a hydroelectric dam. We mapped, sampled, sexed, and genotyped 386 individuals in the regenerant population (RP), as well as 128 adult trees located along two highways adjacent to the degraded area; one in Mato Grosso do Sul State (MS) and other in São Paulo State (SP). Parentage analyses was carried out for 370 individuals of the RP population, using as putative parents 348 individuals from RP and all 128 individuals sampled in MS and SP. Based on parentage analysis and eight microsatellite loci, our analyses revealed that for individuals of the RP with an identified father (pollen donor), 1.1% of the pollen was dispersed up to 532 m, while for those with an identified mother (seed donor), 0.5% of seeds were dispersed up to 4,782 m. However, a large proportion of pollen (76.5%) and seeds (57%) immigrated from trees outside the sampled populations. Pollen and seeds were dispersed through a pattern of isolation by distance. Genetic diversity was significantly similar between adults of both highway populations and individuals from RP, with significant levels of inbreeding detected only in RP. Our results demonstrate that the nearest trees contributed pollen and seeds for the recovery of the degraded area, indicating reproductive spatial isolation among the sampled populations due to the damming of the river. Such results help to understand the process of regeneration for A. fraxinifolium in regenerant populations to inform strategies for conservation and environmental recovery with this species.
... The result of shortdistance pollen dispersal compared to potential longdistance flight by bees could also be related to foraging preferences of some species (De Vere et al., 2017). Similarly, pollen dispersal following a pattern of isolation by distance has been found for other G. americana populations (mean of 166-313 m; Manoel et al., 2017) and in studies on other tree species (Lander et al., 2010;Braga and Collevatti, 2011;Fuchs and Hamrick, 2011;Ismail et al., 2012;Manoel et al., 2012;Baldauf et al., 2014;Breed et al., 2015;Reim et al., 2015;Tambarussi et al., 2015;Bezemer et al., 2016;Baldoni et al., 2017;Spoladore et al., 2017;Moraes et al., 2018;Souza et al., 2018;Lander et al., 2019;Potascheff et al., 2019;Solís-Hernández and Fuchs, 2019). This is further supported by the presence of SGS and mating among related trees (1 − t s ) in other G. americana populations (Sebbenn et al., 1998;Manoel et al., 2017) and can explain the mating among related trees detected within progenies of PT. ...
Using microsatellite loci, we assessed the mating system and genetic diversity of the dioecious tropical tree Genipa americana in a natural population (NP) and a progeny test (PT). For NP, we also estimated the paternity correlation within and among fruits and mean pollen dispersal distance. As expected for dioecious species, all offspring originated from outcrossing (tm= 1). Mating among relatives (1-ts) and paternity correlation (rp) were variable among progenies (1-ts= 0.03–0.19; rp= 0.04–0.40), but greater in NP than PT. Fixation index (F) was generally significant and lower in adults than offspring, indicating selection against inbred individuals. Paternity correlation was higher within (0.40) than among (0.26) fruits, indicating a lower effective number of pollen donors (Nep) within (2.5) than among (3.8) fruits. Due to the higher rp in NP, the effective size within progenies (Ne) was lower (2.69) than PT (3.27). The pollen dispersal pattern was strongly leptokurtic, suggesting long-distance pollen dispersal (mean of 179 m). The results show that both populations can be used for seed collection in environmental reforestation programs; however, considering that PT is structured in maternal progenies, NP is more suitable for seed collection due to the lower probability of mating among related trees.
... The low density in tree species populations may indicate that trees receive pollen over longer distances (White et al., 2002;Lowe et al., 2005;Ellstrand, 2014;Vranckx et al., 2014). Reducing tree density and opening up the landscape may improve air motion within and between forests (Okubo and Levin, 1989;Nason and Hamrick, 1997;Lowe et al., 2005;Ellstrand, 2014), and this can, as a result, promote pollen flow in wind-pollinated tree species (Dyer and Sork, 2001;Bacles et al., 2005;Lander et al., 2010;Gerber et al., 2014;Potascheff et al., 2019). Thus, tree density may ultimately influence mating patterns and local pollen diversity in small-scale forested systems (Vranckx et al., 2014). ...
Understanding spatiotemporal variations in genetic diversity and mating system can allow policymakers to better support actions towards conservation and management of plant populations. However, multiyear studies are still scarce for many long-lived tree species. Therefore, we herein analyze how genetic diversity, genetic structure and mating system of Araucaria angustifolia vary within and among populations, generations (adults and seed co-horts) and years. We evaluated two A. angustifolia populations occurring in forest-grassland landscapes, one of them for three years. Differences in Ho and He were observed among generations and populations, with significant fixation indexes for all adult and seed cohorts evaluated. Pairwise F ST values showed that genetic divergences were greater between populations, followed by those among years, and, finally, less relevant values among generations. No significant spatial genetic structure was found in either population. Paternity correlation, number of pollen donors, coancestry and proportion of half and full-sibs may vary over the years in A. angustifolia. In practical terms, the present study demonstrates how recommendations for seed collection may change according to the evaluated year, such as the number of seed trees, which ranged from 42 to 48. Furthermore, multiyear analyses allow a more comprehensive understanding of the genetic aspects for a long-lived tree species. Finally, we present and discuss these aspects and their variations in space, time and between reproductive events, including recommendations for seed collection.
... Over the last decade, several studies have assessed genetic diversity, mating system, and gene flow in tree populations within forest fragments or logged forests, demonstrating lower levels of genetic diversity, greater levels of inbreeding, increased population differentiation, and lower rates of pollen and seed flow than undisturbed forests (Angeloni et al., 2011;Tambarussi et al., 2017; fragmentation and have helped to inform forest management and conservation decisions (Isabel et al., 2020). Restrictions to gene flow and reproductive isolation of populations, along with fewer remaining reproductive trees within forest fragments, may result in higher rates of mating among related trees, accentuating inbreeding in descendant populations (Martins et al., 2008Tambarussi et al., 2017;Araujo et al., 2017;Carvalho et al., 2017;Potascheff et al., 2019;Solís-Hernández and Fuchs, 2019;Aguiar et al., 2020;Ismail and Kokko, 2020). In trees, the cumulative effect of inbreeding in successive generations results in inbreeding depression (Griffin et al., 2019). ...
... We also estimated the mean fixation index (F ) and its statistical significance based on permutation of alleles between individuals. However, as the F for seedlings may be biased due to the overestimation of allele frequencies of maternal alleles (as each seedling within a family receives at least one maternal allele), the index (F o ) was estimated as described by Potascheff et al. (2019). To test whether the indices significantly differed between adults and seedlings, we used the Jackknife resampling method. ...
... where, n is the sample size and F o is inbreeding within family (F o was estimated as described by Potascheff et al., 2019). Finally, the recommended number of seed trees for seed collection ( = m N N / e r e ( ) ) was estimated considering a reference effective size (N e r ( ) =150; Sebbenn, 2006). ...
Inbreeding in trees can result in inbreeding depression (ID), which may affect adaptation and growth of individuals that originate from self-fertilization and mating among relatives. To investigate how inbreeding can affect seed, and seedling growth, we used microsatellite loci to determine the mating system of a Hymenaea courbaril population and assess traits of seeds and seedlings for the expression of ID. Ninety-nine adult trees were mapped and genotyped and seeds collected from eight trees in a forest fragment in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Seed length and weight were measured and germinated seedlings that had been grown under nursery conditions were genotyped and measured for height and root collar diameter (RCD) at two-month intervals (7-17 months of age). Individual fixation index was estimated for each seedling, from which they were classified as originating from mating among unrelated parents (tu), related parents (tr), or selfing (s). This classification was confirmed using paternity analysis. Phenotypic means and ID of the measured traits were calculated for each determined s, tr, and s+tr group. Mating was not random due to the occurrence of self-fertilization (1.3%), mating among relatives (5%), and correlated mating (15.6%). Biparental inbreeding was attributed to significant spatial genetic structure up to 250 m. The mean fixation index within families was significantly higher in seedlings (0.184) than in adults (-0.035), indicating ID from seedling to adult stages. The ID varied among seed and seedling traits throughout the study and between mating groups. Self-fertilization resulted in greater ID for seed length (8.5%) and weight (21.3%) than for tr (< 7%). The ID for height and RCD of selfed individuals tended to decrease over the course of the study. The values for ID for seedling height and RCD of the s group were greater (15.8-25.6% for both traits) than for the tr group (3.1-8.2%), with a total (s+tr) similar between height (7.6-9.4%) and RCD (8.1-10.5%). We recommend that seed collection is conducted across a large number of forest fragments in the region where the restoration is to be implemented, preferably in forests that are connected or as close as possible to other remnants, to mitigate the effects of ID in future generations. Seeds must be collected from a minimum of 47 H. courbaril trees, respecting a minimum distance of 250 m between each tree to avoid collection of seeds from related individuals.
... Because only trees from AS flowered during the sampling period for this study, pollinators did not need to expend large amounts of energy flying long distances because the provenances are grouped in plots within blocks and individuals of the same provenances are located in close proximity. An IBD pollen dispersal pattern has also been observed in insect pollinated tropical trees in seed orchards (Gonzaga et al. 2016;Pupin et al. 2019) and in natural populations (Oddou et al. 2006;Lander et al. 2010;Tambarussi et al. 2015;Nooren et al. 2016;Manoel et al. 2017;Spoladore et al. 2017;Cuénin et al. 2019;Potascheff et al. 2019). IBD dispersal patterns are likely related to the process outlined above, namely pollinator behavior. ...
Worldwide, the significant fragmentation of tropical forests has resulted in the isolation of tree populations; this in turn has affected genetic diversity due to increases in inbreeding, leading to inbreeding depression (ID). Ex situ provenance and progeny trials are an effective strategy for population genetic conservation that can help combat the negative impacts of forest fragmentation on tree populations. Balfourodendron riedelianum is an endangered tree of the Atlantic Forest, for which conservation and environmental reforestation strategies are needed to ensure the preservation of the species. Microsatellite loci were used to genotype adult trees and descendant seedlings in an ex situ provenance and progeny trial located in São Paulo State, Brazil. The aim was to inform seed production management strategies for environmental restoration based on estimates of effective population size (Ne ), pollen dispersal, mating pattern and ID for the traits root collar circumference (RCC) and plant height (H). The Ne (148.9) is adequate for sort-term ex situ conservation. Seedlings were predominantly outcrossed (93–96.2%), but selfing (3.8–7%) and mating between relatives (20–28.1%) show that the species is self-compatible. Pollen was dispersed through a pattern of isolation by distance. Selfed and biparental inbred seedlings showed lower values of RCC (2.98–3.10 mm) and observed heterozygosity (Ho= 0.25–0.34), and higher fixation index (F = 0.29–0.61) than seedlings from mating between unrelated trees (RCC= 3.30 mm, Ho= 0.51, F= 0.07). Mating among full-sibs showed the highest ID (8.1–12.4%). In the studied provenance and progeny trial, the selection of one tree per plot can minimize the production of biparental inbred seeds. Our results show that the provenance and progeny trial can serve as a seed source for environmental restoration.
... Apart from its ecological importance, the wood of Q. grandiflora is used locally, for example, as timber, charcoal and firewood (Stafleu 1953, Protásio et al. 2014). The species is also important for the restoration of degraded areas and as an ornamental tree along roadsides and in urban areas due to its conspicuous flowers and fruits (Dousseau et al. 2013, Potascheff et al. 2019. Medicinal substances are extracted from the bark for use as antiseptics for the treatment of external wounds and for their anti-ulcerogenic properties (Gaspi et al. 2006, Hiruma-Lima et al. 2006, and also from leaf extracts, which have analgesic effects and can potentially act as an anti-convulsion medicine (Gaspi et al. 2006). ...
... grandiflora trees. Over a period of three years the individual treebased study carried out by Potascheff et al. (2019) documented mean annual flower Da numbers of 109, 635 and 695 per tree. Flowering occurs in the dry period or during the transition between the dry and humid periods (Batalha & Mantovani 2000, Lenza & Klink 2006, Pirani et al. 2009), and usually the flowering peak is reached quickly and is often synchronised between individual trees (Lenza & Klink 2006). ...
... Borges et al. (2011) demonstrated that isolated flowers on an individual tree not visited by pollinators failed to develop fruits, and Barbosa (1983) demonstrated auto-incompatibility in Q. grandiflora. The only study including spatial information about the pollination of Q. grandiflora indicated mean effective dispersal distances of 525 m for a cerrado landscape in Brazil, with an average distance between mother trees of 566 m (Potascheff et al. 2019). The same study showed that outcrossing rates were high, and that mating amongst relatives and selfing correlations were low. ...
Qualea grandiflora Mart. (Vochysiaceae) is one of the most widespread species within the cerrado formation, which counts amongst the most threatened ecosystems worldwide. Understanding the regeneration ecology of Q. grandi-flora is a central requirement for the success of conservation measures and silvicultural management strategies. Exhaustive investigation was carried out into each of the development stages, and the connected processes within the regeneration cycle, to provide a better understanding of the main factors influencing the regeneration ecology and the recruitment dynamics of the species. For this purpose, we analysed 92 different sources of information in this review, divided into two groups (n = 41 with "basic species information" and n = 51 with "specific information about regeneration stages and pro-cesses") relevant for regeneration and silviculture. Our literature review showed the high proportion of studies addressing the processes flowering, pollination and fruiting, whereas the subsequent processes like seed dispersal, seed storage, germination and seedling development are almost entirely lacking. This also applies for spatial information about environmental conditions and the related regeneration processes in Q. grandiflora. This knowledge is important for management, for example, knowledge of the critical distances between flowering and seed producing trees to ensure genetically diverse re-generation and the identification of safe sites for seedling establishment. Most of the practical suggestions in relation to increasing densities or growth of Q. grandiflora seedlings and saplings made in the literature are linked to less intensive fire management strategies adopted at certain times. The use of selective herbivory to reduce the increasing competition pressure exerted by inva-sive grasses and hampering Q. grandiflora seedlings is also cited. In this study we highlight the need for more complex species-specific information following the development stages and processes of the regeneration cycle so as to prepare a continuous strategy with a range of management approaches.
... The single stamen and the gynoecium are enclosed by the petal, and the stigma is located between the thecae (Oliveira 1998). In the study area, species is mostly selfincompatible, although a few selfing events may occur Kageyama 2014, 2015;Potascheff et al. 2019). ...
... In contrast, regarding the diurnal pollinators, hummingbirds can establish feeding territories and do not visit a high number of different trees; butterflies normally do not fly long distances when foraging, and they were not always observed contacting the reproductive parts; and bees prefer short flights between flowers and are voracious pollen consumers (Baker 1975;Miyake and Yahara 1998;Cant et al. 2005;Justino et al. 2012;Ohashi and Thomson 2012). Thus, they may not promote high rates of outcrossing pollination between distant or isolated individuals and populations as the hawk moths do (see Potascheff et al. 2019). In consequence, in this region, hawk moths clearly contribute most to enhance male fitness compared to diurnal pollinators. ...
Nectar production in flowers has been associated with pollination systems and seen as part of plant reproductive strategies. But other factors may have a role on nectar features and its efficacy as reward. We investigated pollination system of Qualea grandiflora, the most widespread woody species of Cerrado, the Neotropical savannas in Central Brazil, focusing on nectar features, their relationship with nocturnal and diurnal pollinators and how nectar affects male fitness, measured through pollen removal. Qualea grandiflora flowers during rainy season; anthesis starts at dusk, with a slightly sweet scent, pollen release and receptive stigma. Flowers remained opened until next evening and were visited and pollinated by a wide range of nocturnal and diurnal animals. Hawk moths were more frequent and responsible for most Q. grandiflora male fitness. Nectar was secreted during the night and early morning, with maximum accumulated volume up to 20.9 μl. Sugar concentration (23.12%) and amount (1.79 mg) remained constant during flower lifespan. No signals of active nectar resorption were observed. Nectar sugar composition was sucrose dominant during the night, and sucrose and hexose rich during the day. Standing crop measurements indicated an important proportion of nectar intake by flower visitors. Qualea grandiflora seemed to synchronize its floral and nectar features with hawk moths. However, nectar composition encompasses general preferences by both diurnal and nocturnal pollinators, assuring a mixed pollination system which seems well adapted to the species continental-scale distribution.
