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Connections between form, function, ontogeny, and phylogeny. Form and function are strongly linked. Ontogeny and phylogeny are reciprocally connected via developmental processes like heterochrony. Ontogeny and phylogeny potentially necessitate changes of the form-function interplay.
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In order to survive, animals have to eat - at least during certain phases of life, since the energy required for almost all life processes comes from the assimilation of existing organic compounds. Intraoral food processing as one of the four stages of feeding refers to any mechanical reduction or food preparation in the oral cavity before swallowi...
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... 1916). Thus, the ancient conceptual relationship between form and function is at least as old as Aristotle and displays a core issue of the origin of morphology (Bock and Von Wahlert, 1965;Darwin, 1859;Padian, 1995;Russell, 1916). Form and function are different aspects of the same quality, as reverse and obverse of a coin -one implies the other (Fig. 1). The relationship between form and function described best with the term 'form-function complex'. By introducing two new technical terms, Bock and Von Wahlert distilled the essence of the term form-function complex to the faculty of a feature (Bock and Von Wahlert, 1965). Feature and faculty, in turn, are described as any part, trait, ...
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... tree on the façade of the Jena Phyletisches Museum, thus visualizing that ontogeny and phylogeny are core issues in evolution. In fact, since evolution continues to shape the predefined ontogeny of existing life and thus creates new forms of life with modified ontogenies, the processes of ontogeny and phylogeny are reciprocally linked (Fig. 1). The connection between ontogeny and phylogeny was not hidden from Charles Robert Darwin either, as he wrote: "Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we look at the embryo as a picture, more or less obscure, of the progenitor, either in its adult or larval state, of all members of the same great class." in the sixth edition of his ...
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... core assumptions underlie the integrated concept of this work ( Fig. 1): (i) the lines or ...
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... (Caudata) seem well suited for modelling the evolution of feeding during the evolution of tetrapods, because (1) they belong to the group of Lissamphibians ( Fig. 2 and Fig. S1; supplementary material c) being one of the two groups forming the extant phylogenetic bracket of tetrapods (Fig. 2); (2) salamanders are possibly the least derived lissamphibians and thus retain many of the pleisiomorphic features of the ancestral tetrapod feeding mechanism (Carroll and Holmes, 1980;Duellman and Trueb, 1994;Jarvik, ...
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... stages of basal representatives of each salamander family (from literature (Bonett and Blair, 2017;Bonett et al., 2014;Ehmcke and Clemen, 2000;Fabre et al., 2020;Macaluso et al., 2020;Marks, 2000;Parker, 1882;Reilly and Altig, 2006;Rose, 2003;Schoch et al., 2019;Vassilieva et al., 2013;Worthington and Wake, 1971) and my own investigations) (Fig. 10A) and plotted on the currently accepted phylogenetic tree of salamanders (Pyron and Wiens, 2011) (Fig. ...
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... et al., 2014;Ehmcke and Clemen, 2000;Fabre et al., 2020;Macaluso et al., 2020;Marks, 2000;Parker, 1882;Reilly and Altig, 2006;Rose, 2003;Schoch et al., 2019;Vassilieva et al., 2013;Worthington and Wake, 1971) and my own investigations) (Fig. 10A) and plotted on the currently accepted phylogenetic tree of salamanders (Pyron and Wiens, 2011) (Fig. ...
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... data that was used to generate the model (ch. II-V) are classified as primary support ( Fig. 10A; dark green). Additionally, my own unpublished findings from the common mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus; Rafinesque, 1818) as well as that of the northern slimy salamander (Plethodon glutinosus;Green, 1818) were added to test the model (Fig. 10A, marked with *). The paedomorphic common mudpuppy (Proteidae), on the one hand, exhibits a ...
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... data that was used to generate the model (ch. II-V) are classified as primary support ( Fig. 10A; dark green). Additionally, my own unpublished findings from the common mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus; Rafinesque, 1818) as well as that of the northern slimy salamander (Plethodon glutinosus;Green, 1818) were added to test the model (Fig. 10A, marked with *). The paedomorphic common mudpuppy (Proteidae), on the one hand, exhibits a typical larval morphotype and uses mandible-based intraoral food processing, while the peramorphic northern slimy salamander (Plethodontidae), on the other hand, shows a metamorphic morphotype and applies tongue-palate rasping. Hence, the ...
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... peramorphic northern slimy salamander (Plethodontidae), on the other hand, shows a metamorphic morphotype and applies tongue-palate rasping. Hence, the unpublished data support the model of the food processing ontogeny of salamanders. However, as this data has not yet been published and reviewed, they have been classified as secondary support ( Fig. 10A; light ...
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... general kinematic pattern and/ or the result of the processing mechanism ( Rull et al., 2020;Schwenk and Wake, 1993). Thus, as neither of these articles reports a combination of a detailed description of the food processing mechanism (e.g., kinematics) and nor its result (i.e., processing marks), they have been classified as secondary support ( Fig. 10A; light green). However, the few pieces of information gathered from these articles mostly seem to support the model of the food processing ontogeny of salamanders. Since the paedomorphic cryptobranchids and amphiumids, as well as a paedomorphic member of the ambystomatids, exhibit a larval morphotype and chew their food (Cundall et ...
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... However, the few pieces of information gathered from these articles mostly seem to support the model of the food processing ontogeny of salamanders. Since the paedomorphic cryptobranchids and amphiumids, as well as a paedomorphic member of the ambystomatids, exhibit a larval morphotype and chew their food (Cundall et al., 1987;Rull et al., 2020) (Fig. ...
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... is evident from the X-ray videos, resulted in the behaviour being interpreted as mere food transport and that, therefore, food processing went unnoticed. The kinematics described are homogeneous to tongue-palate rasping; however, as no information is available about potential damage to the food, the source is classified as potential support ( Fig. 10A; ...
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... of the food) are well documented, and this mandible-based processing mechanism is known to commonly snap foods in half ( Dalrymple et al., 1985). As a result, this plethodontid head-tucking behaviour appeared to contradict the model of the ontogeny of intraoral food processing in salamanders and was therefore classified as counterevidence ( Fig. 10A; orange). In contrast to the food processing behaviour reported here, however, plethodontid food processing has been studied using relatively large foods (earthworms and waxworms) Schwenk and Wake, 1993), although (i) such foods are not a large part of the prey spectrum of members of this family (Keen, 1979;Sites Jr, 1978) and (ii) parts of the ...
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... 2013a;Heiss et al., 2015;Maglia and Pyles, 1995) -hence, suggesting that flexibility could also be necessary for food processing. Indeed, the results of the present work indicate that metamorphic salamanders adapt their processing behaviour to the type of prey, while the medium in which feeding occurs does not seem to have a pronounced effect (Fig. 11), since metamorphic salamanders use tongue-palate rasping regardless of the medium (ch. V). Thus, the results of this work support the fourth hypothesis that salamanders can flexibly adjust their processing behaviour to external conditions. Note that feeding on land required approximately half of the processing cycles (0.5x cycles) that ...
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... metamorphic (ch. V) morphotypes was not surprising since such flexible adaptations are common amongst vertebrates (Gerry et al., 2010;Gorniak and Gans, 1980;Throckmorton, 1980;. In contrast, the fact that the medium appears to have little impact on food processing (mainly changes in the number of processing cycles and minor kinematic changes, see Fig. 11A-B and ch. V) was quite surprising as water and air have very distinct physical conditions (Denny, 1993) and in fact, ingestion has been shown to change with the switch from aquatic to terrestrial conditions (Heiss and De Vylder, 2016;Heiss et al., 2013a;Heiss et al., 2015). This raises the question of why intraoral food processing, in ...
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... This model of the development of the form and function of intraoral food processing has been combined with pre-existing data of morphogenetic peculiarities (i.e., heterochrony) as well as a phylogenetic tree of the currently accepted relationships among the salamanders to generate a phylogeny of the food processing ontogeny in salamanders (Fig. ...
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