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Computer models of a 1-meter-high windbreak subjected to 1 m/s (a) and the same structure subjected to 10 m/s (b). In all examples, wind comes from a source to the left. Wind speeds in the key are given in m/s. Structures can be used for scale.
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Advances in hominin bioenergetics and paleoclimate reconstructions suggest that morphology was an insufficient buffer against the cool climate of Pleistocene Europe. To maintain homeostasis, hominins must have supplemented endothermy with various extrasomatic behavioral solutions. It is commonly suggested that one such solution was the use of simpl...
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... models revealed similar patterns of wind-speed deflection ( Fig. 1). By diverting the airflow upwards, wind velocity behind the structure was reduced in proportion to its magnitude. Under naturally occurring wind speeds, airflow patterns maintained similar patterns regardless of velocity. Wind speed was significantly reduced in an area of two meters behind the habitation structures. It is worth noting that significant pockets on the ground in front of and behind the structure were shown to be in still air. Form is only one factor determining the performance of windbreaks. Construction materials are another and their performance in turn depends on secondary ...
Citations
... A special feature of the region is the high number of borers that might indicate specific tasks, perhaps hide working. It seems plausible that the harsh and cold conditions of this high-altitude environment required warm clothing and perhaps dwelling structures made of hide (Chu, 2009). Another way of protecting against the cold was fire and exceptional massive accumulations of ash and charcoal are evidence of large fires in the inhabited rock shelters ( fig. 9, E). ...
On the one hand, high-altitude mountain habitats are often regarded as unfavourable for sustained human occupation, due
to the challenging environmental stress in these landscapes for the human body. On the other hand, tropical highlands in Africa are
suggested as potential refugia during times of climate deterioration. However, archaeological surveys in these areas were virtually
non-existent. Extensive archaeological research during the last decade in the high-altitude regions of Ethiopia has fundamentally
changed our understanding of prehistoric occupations in these areas. It is now known that these ecozones had been part of the human
habitat at least since the emergence of Homo sapiens. High altitude landscapes were used for short-term, task-specific trips of small
groups. However, they have also been used for longer periods as regular settlement places. The advantages of high-altitude biomes are
the relative abundance of water and compressed altitudinal ecozones offering a wide spectrum of natural resources. For these reasons,
highlands have also been used as retreats during times of environmental stress. However, climatic deterioration was not the main trigger
for the occupation of high-altitude regions. They were also used during favourable environmental conditions as part of larger settlement
areas that also included lowland regions or were at least part of exchange networks.
... Some of these structures may have been windbreaks, which would have been instrumental in keeping the occupants warm and protected in harsh weather. Computer simulation modeling of windbreak efficiency in wind tunnels by Chu (2009) indicates that significant thermoregulatory benefits can be gained even from very simple constructions. Examples of these can be found in both MP and MSA contexts. ...
The places in which people live, sleep, prepare food, and undertake other activities-known variably as homes, residential sites, living sites, and domestic spaces-play a key role in the emergence and evolution of modern human culture. The dynamic influence of domestic spaces began early in human evolutionary history, during the Paleolithic/Stone Age. Drawing on examples from Africa and western Eurasia, this article explores aspects of the changing social and cultural significance of domestic spaces throughout this time using several lines of evidence: repeated site visitation, behavioral structuring of living spaces, and information gained by dissecting palimpsest records. With the development of pyrotechnology, living sites become hearth-centered domestic spaces that provided a common hub for activities. Through time the activities around hearths increased in their complexity and diversity. The parsing of palimpsest records by archaeologists also reveals changes in the nature, variety, and intensity of on-site activities through time, indicating shifts in site function and the spatial expression of cultural norms. Archaeological evidence shows that the entwined development of domestic spaces and human cultural activities was gradual, albeit nonlinear from the Lower Paleolithic through the Upper Paleolithic/later Middle Stone Age. In this process, domestic spaces emerged as common arenas of opportunity for social interaction and knowledge transmission, qualities that may have contributed to and enhanced the development of cumulative culture in Paleolithic society.
... At the open-air site of 'La Folie' (France), the interpretation of a circular arrangement of limestone blocks as evidence of an intentional structure was supported by lithic refits, which indicated that interior and exterior spaces could be distinguished (Bourguignon et al., 2002). It has been suggested that Neanderthals could construct simple ephemeral structures, such as windbreaks or semisheltered areas, but more complex dwellings, such as huts or tents, would not have existed before the Upper Palaeolithic (Chu, 2009). Interestingly, one of the most robust examples of Neanderthal architecture does not correspond to a residential context. ...
The aim of this chapter is to provide a general overview of the currently available data on the spatial patterns of Neanderthal campsites. Similarly to other behavioural domains, the spatial strategies of Neanderthals have often been defined as simple and repetitive, far from the complexity characteristic of modern humans. However, before addressing this issue, we will discuss some general problems related to the ethnographic background from which the concept of the hunter–gatherer campsite has been constructed. Even if certain elements of this ethnographic paradigm are difficult to translate to the archaeological realm, most of the spatial units identified in hunter–gatherer camps—domestic, sleeping and resting, specialised, and secondary waste areas—have been recognised in Neanderthal sites. At first glance, this suggests that the formation processes behind the spatial variability of Middle Palaeolithic sites must be similar to those observed among recent foragers. Nevertheless, the temporal uncertainties inherent in the archaeological record limit our ability to address the ethnographic agenda and pose serious challenges to the scope of our spatial interpretations.
... The archaeological record provides little in terms of a solid framework, as time, climate change, and geological events have rendered landscapes and archaeological sites, particularly from the early African Plio-Pleistocene, difficult for direct comparison at comparable scales (Villaseñor, Bobe, and Behrensmeyer 2020). Similar efforts to apply primate archaeology to explain early hominin dwelling behavior have underscored the difficulties in such approaches, and the lack of substantial progress since then should at least be a sobering reminder that real advances, at least on the part of archaeology, are slow going (Chu 2009;Sept 1992Sept , 1998Stewart, Piel, and McGrew 2011). ...
... The archaeological record provides little in terms of a solid framework, as time, climate change, and geological events have rendered landscapes and archaeological sites, particularly from the early African Plio-Pleistocene, difficult for direct comparison at comparable scales (Villaseñor, Bobe, and Behrensmeyer 2020). Similar efforts to apply primate archaeology to explain early hominin dwelling behavior have underscored the difficulties in such approaches, and the lack of substantial progress since then should at least be a sobering reminder that real advances, at least on the part of archaeology, are slow going (Chu 2009;Sept 1992Sept , 1998Stewart, Piel, and McGrew 2011). ...
... The archaeological record provides little in terms of a solid framework, as time, climate change, and geological events have rendered landscapes and archaeological sites, particularly from the early African Plio-Pleistocene, difficult for direct comparison at comparable scales (Villaseñor, Bobe, and Behrensmeyer 2020). Similar efforts to apply primate archaeology to explain early hominin dwelling behavior have underscored the difficulties in such approaches, and the lack of substantial progress since then should at least be a sobering reminder that real advances, at least on the part of archaeology, are slow going (Chu 2009;Sept 1992Sept , 1998Stewart, Piel, and McGrew 2011). ...
... Other fire-free methods for preparing food (e.g., pounding, slicing or fermentation) could have further reduced the need to use fire on a day-to-day basis under conditions where fuel is scarce (Glover et al. 1977;Heaton et al. 1988;Carmody and Wrangham 2009;Carmody et al. 2011;Zink et al. 2014;Zink and Lieberman 2016;Castel et al. 2017;Speth 2017). Moreover, other cultural adaptions, such as the use of clothing and/or shelter (Chu 2009;Gilligan 2017), or physiological adaptions, such as increased muscle mass or brown adipose tissue (BAT), metabolic acclimation and/or perhaps even microbiotic responses (Scholander et al. 1958a, b;Hammel et al. 1959;Steegmann et al. 2002;Aiello and Wheeler 2003;Chevalier et al. 2015), could have provided enough protection from the elements to negate the absolute need for fire for thermoregulation in instances where making a fire was not possible or the procurement of fuel was prohibitively costly (for overviews, see White 2006;Churchill 2014;Hosfield 2016;MacDonald 2018). Indeed, the overall effectiveness of fire for thermoregulation, especially while sleeping, has been questioned (Sørensen 2009). ...
(Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 28)
The ability to control fire is a pivotal trait of human culture and likely influenced both the physical and cultural development of our evolutionary lineage. We know fire fundamentally changed our relationship with the world by making previously uninhabitable climates tolerable, inedible foods palatable and more nutritious, and providing a focal point around which complex social relationships could develop. It remains uncertain, however, when and in what manner fire became an integral part of the technological repertoire of our early ancestors. This gap in our knowledge prevents a full understanding of how fire affected our physical form and cultural lifeways. The long and drawn out process by which fire progressed from simply being a close companion in the natural environment to becoming a resource exploited opportunistically by hominins eventually led to greater control of fire. At this point, fire was largely 'tamed' through careful maintenance and transported from place to place. Ultimately, likely through a combination of serendipity and experimentation, humans discovered that they could make fire for themselves whenever and wherever they liked, providing a profound new freedom to control their environment, cook their food and produce new materials at will. This article provides an overview of the current state of our understanding of fire use, and more specifically, fire-making in the Paleolithic. There is currently much debate in the field surrounding this issue, and it is stressed herein that the only way to definitively infer any one hominin group could make fire is to identify the tools they used to do so. Therefore, much attention is paid to how archaeologists have attempted to identify fire-making tools in the archaeological record, primarily using experimental archaeology coupled with microwear analysis. Through these efforts, it appears stone-on-stone percussive fire-making using flint and pyrite was a skill first practiced by at least some groups of late Neanderthals, though its origins could be much older. Conversely, preservational problems associated with the wood-on-wood friction fire-making make it extremely difficult to assess the antiquity of this method. Lingering questions regarding early fire-making innovations and possible avenues for future research are discussed.
... Some of these structures may have been windbreaks, which would have been instrumental in keeping the occupants warm and protected in harsh weather. Computer simulation modeling of windbreak efficiency in wind tunnels by Chu (2009) indicates that significant thermoregulatory benefits can be gained even from very simple constructions. Examples of these can be found in both MP and MSA contexts. ...
To differentiate between “tools” and “debris”, lithic analysts usually rely on the presence or absence of retouch, traces of use-wear, or extrapolation of the “desired end products” through the reconstruction of the chaîne opératoire. These methods usually fail to identify the full range of unretouched lithics utilized, especially at the assemblage scale. The spatial context of lithic pieces is often overlooked as an additional tool to identify tool selection. This paper presents the results of a study of seven open-air Middle Paleolithic sites in France, where lithic production and selection can be segregated in space. Two interrelated methods are utilized, one which relies on refitting data and the other which focuses on the differential spatial distribution of lithic artifacts. At these sites, the selected lithics identified using these methods match up well with what archaeologists have long thought to be “desired end products” but many of these sought pieces were also left with the manufacturing debris, indicating that lithics were produced in mass irrespective of immediate demand. The methods presented in this paper can therefore provide answers to many salient questions regarding lithic production and selection and are applicable to any context where lithic production has a strong spatial signature.
... Strong evidence suggests that the selective pressures imparted by climate has altered human genomes [24,61,62]. In addition, new climates led to cultural responses such as the use of fire for heat [63], clothing [26] and shelter [64], all of which modified the climate to which individuals were exposed. We argue that modern temperatures in homes are a continuation of this same effort, but the technological ability of humans to modify climate has led to the extreme scenario, where fossil fuels are cheap, and (North American) indoor climates closely align with TNZs. ...
Human engineering of the outdoors led to the development of the indoor niche, including home construction. However, it is unlikely that domicile construction mechanics are under direct selection for humans. Nonetheless, our preferences within indoor environments are, or once were, consequential to our fitness. The research of human homes does not usually consider human evolution, and, therefore, we are without previous predictions about indoor climate preference. We worked with citizen scientists to collect indoor climate data from homes (n = 37) across the USA. We then compared these data to recent global terrestrial climate data (0.58 grid cells, n = 67 420) using a climate dissimilarity index. We also compared some climate-related physiological parameters (e.g. Thermoneutral zone (TNZ)) between humans and a selection of non-human primates. On average, our study homes were most similar in climate to the outdoor conditions of west central Kenya. We found that the indoor climates of our study homes largely matched the TNZ of humans and other primates. Overall, we identified the geographical distribution of the global outdoor climate that is most similar to the interiors of our study homes and summarized study home indoor climate preferences.
... The problem of coping with a cold environment, for example, can be solved a) phenotypically (e.g. by evolving subcutaneous adipose stores, which is an evolutionarily ancient solution: Ball et al. 2017;Speakman 2018;Steegmann et al. 2002;Wells 2012), b) behaviorally (e.g. by birds migrating ahead of cold spells: Briedis et al. 2017;Somveille et al. 2018), or c) by an efficient use of extended phenotypes (e.g. clothing and shelter in humans : Chu 2009;Gilligan 2007Gilligan , 2010Hoffecker and Hoffecker 2017b;MacDonald 2018;cf. burrow and shelter use in other mammals: Kowalczyk and Zalewski 2011;Reichman and Smith 1990). ...
[Target Article.] Objectives: Sexual selection typically centers on bodily and psychological traits. Non-bodily traits ranging from housing and vehicles through art to social media can, however, influence sexual selection even in absence of the phenotype proper. The theoretical framework of human sexual selection is updated in this article by unifying four theoretical approaches and conceptualizing non-bodily traits as extended phenotypic traits.
Methods:
Existing research is synthesized with extended phenotype theory, life history theory, and behavioral ecology. To test population-level hypotheses arising from the review, ecological and demographic data on 122 countries are analyzed with multiple linear regression modelling.
Results:
A four-factor model of intelligence, adolescent fertility, population density, and atmospheric cold demands predicts 64% of global variation in economic complexity in 1995 and 72% of the variation in 2016.
Conclusions:
The evolutionary pathways of extended phenotypes frequently undergo a categorical broadening from providing functional benefits to carrying signalling value. Extended phenotypes require investments in skills and bioenergetic resources, but they can improve survival in high latitudes, facilitate the extraction of resources from the environment, and substantially influence sexual selection outcomes. Bioenergetic investments in extended phenotypes create individual- and population-level tradeoffs with competing life history processes, exemplified here as a global tradeoff between adolescent fertility and economic complexity. The merits of the present model include a more systematic classification of sexual traits, a clearer articulation of their evolutionary-developmental hierarchy, and an analysis of ecological, genetic, and psychological mechanisms that modulate the flow of energy into extended phenotypes and cultural innovations.
