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Comparison of the human and ape foot (from Schultz, 1963). In general, the ape foot has relatively longer metatarsals and phalanges than has the human foot.
Source publication
The feet of apes have a different morphology from those of humans. Until now, it has merely been assumed that the morphology seen in humans must be adaptive for habitual bipedal walking, as the habitual use of bipedal walking is generally regarded as one of the most clear-cut differences between humans and apes. This study asks simply whether human...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... obvious difference between human and NHA feet is in the length of the phalanges, which are relatively short in humans (Schultz, 1963 and see Fig. 1). While the hallux or great toe has similar metatarsal/phalangeal length ratios, the length of the phalanges of the third digit is only 18% of total foot length in humans, but 33% of total foot length in gorillas and 35% in chimpanzees (Keith, 1929). In general, the lengths of the lateral four toes are shorter in humans than in apes ...
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Objectives:
Gorillas, along with chimpanzees and bonobos, are ubiquitously described as 'knuckle-walkers.' Consequently, knuckle-walking (KW) has been featured pre-eminently in hypotheses of the pre-bipedal locomotor behavior of hominins and in the evolution of locomotor behavior in apes. However, anecdotal and behavioral accounts suggest that mou...
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Citations
... The osseous geometry is more congruent in calcaneocuboid joint as compared to the talonavicar joint. Wang et al, 17 while comparing the forces in chimpanzees and human feet, also observed that during evolution, the calcaneocuboid joint of humans has become more stable. ...
Aims
The Chopart joint complex is a joint between the midfoot and hindfoot. The static and dynamic support system of the joint is critical for maintaining the medial longitudinal arch of the foot. Any dysfunction leads to progressive collapsing flatfoot deformity (PCFD). Often, the tibialis posterior is the primary cause; however, contrary views have also been expressed. The present investigation intends to explore the comprehensive anatomy of the support system of the Chopart joint complex to gain insight into the cause of PCFD.
Methods
The study was conducted on 40 adult embalmed cadaveric lower limbs. Chopart joint complexes were dissected, and the structures supporting the joint inferiorly were observed and noted.
Results
The articulating bones exhibit features like a cuboid shelf and navicular beak, which appear to offer inferior support to the joint. The expanse of the spring ligament complex is more medial than inferior, while the superomedial part is more extensive than the intermediate and inferoplantar parts. The spring ligament is reinforced by the tendons in the superomedial part (the main tendon of tibialis posterior), the inferomedial part (the plantar slip of tibialis posterior), and the master knot of Henry positioned just inferior to the gap between the inferomedial and inferoplantar bundles.
Conclusion
This study highlights that the medial aspect of the talonavicular articulation has more extensive reinforcement in the form of superomedial part of spring ligament and tibialis posterior tendon. The findings are expected to prompt further research in weightbearing settings on the pathogenesis of flatfoot.
Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(4):335–342.
... They concluded that the wide australopith pelvis could have offset short legs and enhanced efficiency. Using inverse-dynamics to model joint force, torque and work during simulated bipedal walking in humans and nonhuman apes, Wang et al. (2014), found that the gorilla foot is dynamically most like that of humans. This agrees with Schultz's (1963) finding that of all great apes, the gorilla foot was most similar in anatomy to that of humans. ...
Motion analysis, as applied to evolutionary biomechanics, has experienced its own evolution over the last 50 years. Here we review how an ever-increasing fossil record, together with continuing advancements in biomechanics techniques, have shaped our understanding of the origin of upright bipedal walking. The original, and long-established hypothesis held by Lamarck (1809), Darwin (1859) and Keith (1934), amongst others, maintained that bipedality originated in an arboreal context. However, the first field studies of gorilla and chimpanzees from the 1960's, highlighted their so-called 'knucklewalking' quadrupedalism, leading scientists to assume, semi-automatically, that knucklewalking must have been the precursor to bipedality. It would not be until the discovery of skeletons of early human relatives Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus prometheus, and the inclusion of methods of analysis from computer science, biomechanics, sports science and medicine, that the knucklewalking hypothesis would be most robustly challenged. Their short, but human-like lower limbs and human-like hand indicated that knucklewalking was not part of our ancestral locomotor repertoire. Rather, most current research in evolutionary biomechanics agrees it was a combination of climbing and bipedalism, both in an arboreal context, which facilitated upright, terrestrial, bipedal walking over short distances.
... Biomechanical studies of nonamputee gait suggest that the metatarsal joint (i.e., toe joint) plays an important function during gait [21], [22]. Individuals with metatarsophalangeal arthrodesis, which is fusion of the toe joint, have decreased step length and reduced plantarflexor moment in the affected side [23]. ...
Powered ankle/foot prostheses aim to replicate the biomechanical function of the missing biological limb. Biomechanical analysis shows that while the ankle injects positive energy into the gait cycle, the toe joint dissipates energy. Yet virtually all powered ankle/foot prostheses use custom ankle actuators in combination with carbon fiber foot springs to imitate the function of the missing ankle/foot complex. Here we introduce a powered ankle and toe prosthesis with an underactuated mechanism. The underactuated mechanism connects the toe and ankle joints, providing biomechanically accurate torque and enabling mechanical energy recovery during gait. The proposed powered ankle/toe prothesis is the first device to match the weight, size, and build height of microprocessor-controlled prostheses.
... In a static analysis, gorillas have a power arm to load arm ratio equal to that of humans, better than either chimpanzee or orang-utan, albeit at the cost of large normal forces at the ankle [Wang and Crompton, 2004b]. Further, Wang et al. [2014] found that in simulations of human-like bipedal walking, it is gorillas which most resembled humans in terms of mean joint force and mean joint torque in the joints of the foot. As they do perform both hand-assisted bipedality and some terrestrial bipedality in the wild, gorillas seem to be the most useful living comparator among the African apes [reviewed in Crompton, 2016]. ...
The StW 573 skeleton of Australopithecus prometheus from Sterkfontein Member 2 is some 93% complete and thus by far the most complete member of that genus yet found. Firmly dated at 3.67 Ma, it is one of the earliest specimens of its genus. A crucial aspect of interpretation of locomotor behaviour from fossil remains is an understanding of the palaeoenvironment in which the individual lived and the manner in which it would have used it. While the value of this ecomorphological approach is largely accepted, it has not been widely used as a stable framework on which to build evolutionary biomechanical interpretations. Here, we collate the available evidence on StW 573's anatomy in order, as far as currently possible, to reconstruct what might have been this individual's realized and potential niche. We explore the concept of a common Australopithecus "bauplan" by comparing the morphology and ecological context of StW 573 to that of paenocontemporaneous australopiths including Australopithecus anamensis and KSD-VP-1/1 Australopithecus afarensis. Each was probably substantially arboreal and woodland-dwelling, relying substantially on arboreal resources. We use a hypothesis-driven approach, tested by: virtual experiments, in the case of extinct species; biomechanical analyses of the locomotor behaviour of living great ape species; and analogical experiments with human subjects. From these, we conclude that the habitual locomotor mode of all australopiths was upright bipedalism, whether on the ground or on branches. Some later australopiths such as Australopithecus sediba undoubtedly became more terrestrial, allowing sacrifice of arboreal stability in favour of manual dexterity. Indeed, modern humans retain arboreal climbing skills but have further sacrificed arboreal effectiveness for enhanced ability to sustain striding terrestrial bipedalism over much greater distances. We compare StW 573's locomotor adaptations to those of living great apes and protohominins, and agree with those earlier observers who suggest that the common panin-hominin last common ancestor was postcranially more like Gorilla than Pan.
... In the biomechanical modelling researches about the hominid foot morphology, the focus was mainly on the joint force, torque and work. Compared to great apes, the foot morphology of Homo requires low joint and muscle forces and low joint torques during bipedal standing (Preuschoft, 1970b;Wang and Crompton, 2004), and incurs low joint torques and works during bipedal walking (Wang et al., 2014). During bipedal running, the shorter toes of Homo are also linked to the decreased force of digital flexor (Rolian et al., 2009). ...
Among the Hominidae family of primates, Homo is characterized by more economical bipedal walking. Over the course of evolution towards bipedalism, the foot becomes the only organ directly interacting with substrate and likely influence the bipedal walking economy. However, working out the energy expenditure in bipedal walking from the specific aspect of foot morphology is still challenging, which hinders the understanding of the evolution of both hominid feet and economical bipedal walking. Here we present a functional model to quantitatively assess bipedal walking expenditure of energy from hominid foot morphology. According to our results, the feet of Homo are most suited to economical bipedal walking among hominids. However, the genus whose feet possess second best ability for economical bipedal walking is not our closest relative Pan, but is Gorilla. Using phylogenetically informed morphometric analyses, we further infer the evolutionary changes of hominid foot morphology and investigate the corresponding variation of bipedal walking expenditure. Our results reveal the economical bipedal walking benefits from the morphological changes of human foot after descending from the last common ancestor of hominids. Conversely, the foot morphologies of great apes reflect selections for other locomotor modes, at cost of larger energy expenditure in bipedal walking.
... The arch structure of the foot has enabled human bipedal walking, resulting in our evolution and prosperity [1]. However, the arch structure sometimes collapses for various reasons, leading to feet that exhibit cavus or flatfoot deformity [2]. ...
... Although it is difficult to infer their precise level of arboreal activity, it is fair to interpret based on available morphological evidence that if they were arboreal, the extent of arboreality was likely not comparable to that observed in extant hominoids, who employ a diversity of joint postures during locomotion (Hunt, 1992). Although, evidence from kinematic studies comparing hominoids and modern humans show variation in levels of joint reaction forces in the laboratory depending on specific regions of the limb under loading and the gait phase (e.g., Wang et al., 2014); overall, they presumably experienced high mechanical loading compared to recent modern humans, which may have resulted in the observed greater TBF because of diversity in use of the limbs perhaps in some form of arboreal locomotion. ...
Evidence suggests that recent modern humans (Holocene) have low trabecular bone density (i.e., trabecular bone fraction, TBF) compared with other extant primates and fossil hominins. However, the extent to which TBF in recent humans with varying subsistence strategies differs from that of fossil hominins, and in turn, how hominins differ from various extant catarrhines is unclear. This study tests the hypotheses that first, populations with subsistence strategies demanding high physical activity exhibit greater TBF than sedentary populations and are more similar to fossil Homo. Secondly, that, australopiths have TBF that is more similar to nonhuman primates because of the greater mechanical loading on their skeletons. The study quantifies TBF in the limb epiphyses of recent humans, hominoids, cercopithecines, and fossil hominins. The results show overall a significant decrease in TBF among recent humans, whereas hominins, hominoids, and cercopithecines have similar, high TBF values. In addition, active human populations display TBF that is more similar to fossil Homo. The results suggest that this TBF decline reflects a reduction in activity levels among sedentary populations, although a systemic decline cannot be ruled out. These findings support the recent evolution of low trabecular density because of a decline in activity levels and underscore the utility of comparing multiple skeletal elements across a diverse set of recent modern humans when drawing conclusions about changes in trabecular bone in the human skeleton. Anat Rec, 302:288–305, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... Although it is difficult to infer their precise level of arboreal activity, it is fair to interpret based on available morphological evidence that if they were arboreal, the extent of arboreality was likely not comparable to that observed in extant hominoids, who employ a diversity of joint postures during locomotion (Hunt, 1992). Although, evidence from kinematic studies comparing hominoids and modern humans show variation in levels of joint reaction forces in the laboratory depending on specific regions of the limb under loading and the gait phase (e.g., Wang et al., 2014); overall, they presumably experienced high mechanical loading compared to recent modern humans, which may have resulted in the observed greater TBF because of diversity in use of the limbs perhaps in some form of arboreal locomotion. ...
Evidence suggests that recent modern humans have low trabecular bone density (i.e., bone volume fraction) compared with other primates and fossil hominins. This has been linked to the increased sedentism observed at the beginning of the Holocene with the advent of agriculture. Additionally, among recent humans, sedentary agricultural populations have been shown to have lower density skeletons compared with foragers. However, these findings relied primarily on either comparisons between sedentary populations and fossil hominins, or between limited samples of agricultural and foraging populations. Thus, the extent to which trabecular bone density in recent human populations with varying subsistence strategies (i.e., farmers, foragers, and populations transitioning from foraging to farming) differs from that of different fossil hominins, and, in turn, how hominins differ from extant anthropoids is unclear. Therefore, we test the hypothesis that populations with subsistence strategies demanding high physical activity will exhibit greater trabecular density than sedentary populations, and will be more similar to fossil Homo , and australopiths will be more similar to anthropoids due to the greater mechanical loading on their skeletons. We measure trabecular density using pQCT and microCT in lower and upper limb joints in recent modern humans (five populations), anthropoids ( Chlorocebus aethiops , Papio anubis , Pongo pygmaeus , Pan troglodytes ), and fossil hominins ( Australopithecus africanus , Australopithecus sediba , Paranthropus robustus , Homo neanderthalensis , and early Homo sapiens ).
The results show that in the lower limb joints, there is a significant and uniform decline in trabecular density among all recent humans in the Holocene, while fossil hominins and extant anthropoids show similar, higher trabecular density values. In contrast, in the upper limb, there is no significant shift in trabecular density among humans; active recent human populations display trabecular density that is similar to the fossil Homo . In addition, some anthropoids are not significantly greater in density than the active recent human populations. These results suggest that trabecular density of the lower limb only reflects a reduction in mobility as humans became more sedentary throughout the Holocene. The lack of a significant decline in trabecular density in the upper limb in recent humans may reflect the active use of the arms and hands that is needed for food production and processing even among sedentary populations. While the results support the recent evolution of low trabecular density in modern humans resulting from reductions in activity levels in the Holocene, it is important to compare multiple skeletal elements across a diverse set of recent modern humans with varying subsistence strategies when drawing conclusions about changes in bone density in the human skeleton.
... Nevertheless, the very Victorian philosophy of progress at the heart of the 'scala naturae' concept, which itself underlies grade-based approaches, is still all too pervasive: most of us at one time or the other (e.g. Wang et al. 2014) have been guilty of contrasting 'human' with 'ape' anatomy, with the (however inadvertent) implication that human anatomy is so distinct from that of all other living apes that they can all be lumped together on a different, lower rung of the 'scala naturae'. Since grade-based systematics are now almost universally rejected, under phylogenetic systematics this would imply that humans and their fossil relatives are members of one daughter lineage of the last common ancestor (LCA) we share with other apes, and that all other apes belong to another. ...
... That does not imply that the characters of similarity between the feet of gorillas and humans are not valuable in activities which are often (but not always) seen in a terrestrial context. Wang & Crompton (2004) showed that the static loads experienced by the foot in human-like bipedal standing are indeed more humanlike in gorillas than in other living great apes, and Wang et al. (2014) have now extended this to show that joint torque and work in the foot during bipedal walking (using whole body inertial models, but driven by human walking functions) are again more human-like in gorillas than are those in other great apes. This suggests that upright bipedal standing and walking may favour foot proportions in gorillas and humans, with a long tarsus and short lateral phalanges (Schultz, 1963). ...
In the early 20th century the dominant paradigm for the ecological context of the origins of human bipedalism was arboreal suspension. In the 1960s, however, with recognition of the close genetic relationship of humans, chimpanzees and bonobos, and with the first field studies of mountain gorillas and common chimpanzees, it was assumed that locomotion similar to that of common chimpanzees and mountain gorillas, which appeared to be dominated by terrestrial knuckle-walking, must have given rise to human bipedality. This paradigm has been popular, if not universally dominant, until very recently. However, evidence that neither the knuckle-walking or vertical climbing of these apes is mechanically similar to human bipedalism, as well as the hand-assisted bipedality and orthograde clambering of orang-utans, has cast doubt on this paradigm. It now appears that the dominance of terrestrial knuckle-walking in mountain gorillas is an artefact seen only in the extremes of their range, and that both mountain and lowland gorillas have a generalized orthogrady similar to that seen in orang-utans. These data, together with evidence for continued arboreal competence in humans, mesh well with an increasing weight of fossil evidence suggesting that a mix of orang-utan and gorilla-like arboreal locomotion and upright terrestrial bipedalism characterized most australopiths. The late split date of the panins, corresponding to dates for separation of Homo and Australopithecus, leads to the speculation that competition with chimpanzees, as appears to exist today with gorillas, may have driven ecological changes in hominins and perhaps cladogenesis. However, selection for ecological plasticity and morphological conservatism is a core characteristic of Hominidae as a whole, including Hominini.
Background
The anatomical arrangement of the Lisfranc joint between the midfoot and forefoot is complex and not just critical for bipedal gait but also for prevention, management, and rehabilitation of injuries in this region.
Material and Methods
In forty adult cadaveric lower limbs, the Lisfranc mortise, the ligaments and supports were observed and noted.
Results
The structural arrangement that accords stability to the joint has osseous, ligamentous, and tendinous components. A bony mortise, which is deep medially, disrupts the linearity of the joint line. An extensive Lisfranc ligament with confluent interosseous and plantar parts was observed. Tibialis posterior, peroneus Longus and Lisfranc ligament exhibit a unique anatomical arrangement that supports the joint inferiorly.
Conclusion
The study documents a unique lattice of tendons and ligament offering dynamic support to the joint. Demands of assumption of erect posture and bipedal walking in humans like adduction of the first ray of the foot, maintenance of longitudinal and transverse arches of the foot and ability stiffen midfoot for efficient forefoot take-off are well reflected in the joint structure and supports.
