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Li‐ion battery (LIB) recycling has become an urgent need with rapid prospering of the electric vehicle (EV) industry, which has caused a shortage of material resources and led to an increasing amount of retired batteries. However, the global LIB recycling effort is hampered by various factors such as insufficient logistics, regulation, and technolo...
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... 2.1. Table 1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the three recycling processes. The pyrometallurgy method is widely adopted in Europe, the United States (US), and Japan for spent LIB recycling, [15] as it has been well established for commercialization which can massively and efficiently produce mixed metal slags. ...Similar publications
Currently, electric vehicles (EVs) account for 35 percent of the lithium-ion battery (LIB) market share, which is likely to increase to approximately 90 percent by 2030. In the future, the increased demand will be adversely impacted by the limited geographical spread of critical materials, their projected shortage, and changes in the prices of crit...
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... By seamlessly incorporating recycling processes into the battery manufacturing supply chain, closed-loop recycling systems become crucial, promoting resource conservation and circularity. Furthermore, energy recovery systems, such as waste heat recovery and the integration of renewable energy sources, enhance energy utilization efficiency in recycling facilities, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions and consumption (Yu et al., 2022). By addressing current obstacles comprehensively, these solutions optimize environmental conservation efforts and the economic feasibility of recycling EV LIBs. ...
The rapid worldwide transition to electric vehicles (EVs), propelled by progress in lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology, brings opportunities and problems in sustainable development and resource management. This study examines how incorporating circular economy ideas and enhancing skills in EV LIB recycling can be a strategic approach to meeting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The article explores the relationship between environmental sustainability, economic growth, and social fairness by studying EV battery recycling, the workforce skills gap, and the economic ramifications of a circular approach. Based on the existing literature, the study highlights the importance of circular economy practices in improving resource efficiency, decreasing environmental pollution, and supporting various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially those concerning responsible consumption and production (SDG 12), climate action (SDG 13), and industry, innovation, and infrastructure (SDG 9). The study highlights the significance of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in preparing the workforce with the essential skills to adapt to a more sustainable and circular economy. It also highlights significant obstacles in present recycling methods, such as technological limitations, legislative discrepancies, and the necessity for worldwide collaboration and standardization. The paper suggests practical policy suggestions and future research paths to improve the sustainability of EV battery recycling. The initiatives involve establishing global recycling standards, promoting circular economy models through incentives, boosting technological innovation, and facilitating international collaboration and knowledge exchange.
... However, natural resources for these metals are not evenly distributed and strictly regulated by specific countries. 8,10,11 More than 50% of cobalt ores is from the Democratic Republic of Congo, and about 80% of lithium is regulated by Australia and Chile. 8,11 The centralization of critical metal production in a few countries has raised concerns regarding supply chains and market prices. ...
... 8,10,11 More than 50% of cobalt ores is from the Democratic Republic of Congo, and about 80% of lithium is regulated by Australia and Chile. 8,11 The centralization of critical metal production in a few countries has raised concerns regarding supply chains and market prices. 12 The price of battery-grade lithium carbonate has increased by 5.6 times from 6500 dollars per metric ton in 2015 to 37,000 dollars per metric ton in 2022. ...
... 14 On the other hand, considering the average lifespan of LIBs being around 10 years, 15,16 it is anticipated that the volume of spent LIBs will exceed 5 million tons by 2030. 8,17 Hence, with the increasing amount of spent LIBs reaching their end of life (EOL), it is important to further develop energy-efficient recycling processes and techniques specifically tailored for the treatment of spent LIBs by considering a particularly high composition variability. ...
... Additionally, coin cells were used to test the capacity restoration of the electrodes in most laboratory studies which possesses a typical active material composition ranging from 80 % to 90 % by weight with a corresponding electrode load of approximately 3 mAh cm − 2 . In comparison, industry requirements call for multilayered pouch cell with around 95 wt% active material composition and an electrode load of 4 mAh cm − 2 [99]. Therefore, translating the laboratory gains to industrial standards requires stringent testing using pouch cells to establish the veracity of the technique. ...
Global efforts to tackle climate change and the rise in popularity of electric vehicles and portable electronic devices have engendered a demand explosion for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Effectuated by the green and digital revolution, this exponential rise in the demand for LIBs raises a host of logistical and environmental concerns centered around raw materials, such as metals lithium and cobalt, indispensable to its production. Exclusive reliance on mining to provide raw materials for LIB production introduces a supply risk and exacerbates the negative implications of mining operations. The long-term solution to avoid bottlenecks in LIB production is the creation of a circular economy by consolidating the LIB value chain with recycling, regeneration and upcycling operations. This paper presents a perspective on circular economies and explores the need to incorporate its principles for a sustainable lithium-powered future. The challenges impeding the development of a fully realized circular economy for LIBs and the ongoing research endeavors to overcome these challenges are also addressed.
... The opportunities include the following. First, removing the Al in advance will greatly help us to more e ciently and ecologically recover the Li from the cathode materials 29 if combined with the appropriate method 30 . Second, the precise separation techniques should be also applicable in recycling the batteries from electric two-wheelers, electric bicycles and electric trucks 21 , leading to a much larger market than our evaluation (Supplementary Fig. S3). ...
Recently, large-scale projects using pyro/hydrometallurgy have been introduced worldwide for recycling spent automotive lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), while a few precise separation methods are under development to support a faster, complete, eco extraction of positive electrode active materials. However, the extent to which the precise separation impacts the whole recycling system and the requirement for co-ordinated policy and system design remains poorly understood. Here, we develop an integrated assessment model with technical and policy scenarios that applies a novel precise separation method named high-voltage pulsed discharge to the emerging Japanese electric vehicles market during 2025–2050. We show that the precise separation can be a must-have process that may significantly reduce the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions, the resource consumption potential and the in-use stocks of critical metals (Li, Ni, Co, Mn) compared with the conventional technology combination. To achieve this condition, combined efforts from technology development, system integration, secondary usage regulation and eco-design in LIBs are required.
... Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) powering portable electronics and electrical vehicles (EVs) have revolutionized the population's day-today activities [1,2]. Along with the ubiquitous use of LIBs, end-of-life (EoL) LIBs have been predicted to reach 2 million metric tons by 2030, requiring proper handling to avoid releasing hazardous and valuable battery components into the environment [3,4]. Recycling battery components, especially high-value cathodes from EOL LIBs can minimize hazardous waste release and reduce the mining activities by returning critical minerals to supply chain [5][6][7][8][9]. ...
... Conventional methods of dismantling and mechanical processing of the sometimes microscopically small components are no longer sufficient to ensure the recovery of all valuable materials. The current recovery rates for economically strategic raw materials, especially those used in small quantities, are still low as there are no closed chains of process engineering solutions [8][9][10][11]. ...
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes. Lithium-containing components in batteries, electronics, and renewable energy pose material and waste challenges. Ongoing research focuses on eco-friendly recycling, emphasizing electrostatic separation as a method to recover, for instance, lithium, especially in battery recycling. This study investigates forced dry triboelectric charging and electrostatic separation of powdered materials, with a focus on the charging behavior of lithium aluminate and talcum. The electrostatic separation efficiency for a blend of powders is also evaluated. Collected samples are analyzed via inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry testing to assess component enrichment. Results show successful lithium enrichment from a talcum-lithium aluminate mixture, highlighting significant separation success.
... • At present, the laws, regulations and policies about LFP recycling in most countries are incomplete, the legal framework does not yet exist, subsidy measures are not in place, and the efforts to encourage recycling are insufficient (Gaines et al., 2018;Steward et al., 2019;Wang, W. and Wu, Y., 2017;Zhang et al., 2018). • In some countries and regions, publicity and education efforts are insufficient, and people's awareness of waste LFP battery recycling is not enough (Yu et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2018). • At present, there is no integrated LFP battery recycling network, and the existing battery recycling network is solely composed of small and medium-sized enterprises, discouraging the sufficient recycling of waste LFP batteries (Wang, W. and Wu, Y., 2017;Yu et al., 2022). ...
... • In some countries and regions, publicity and education efforts are insufficient, and people's awareness of waste LFP battery recycling is not enough (Yu et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2018). • At present, there is no integrated LFP battery recycling network, and the existing battery recycling network is solely composed of small and medium-sized enterprises, discouraging the sufficient recycling of waste LFP batteries (Wang, W. and Wu, Y., 2017;Yu et al., 2022). • There are still few recycling sites, which are far from enough to meet the projected demand for LFP battery recycling. ...
Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries have gained widespread recognition for their exceptional thermal stability, remarkable cycling performance, non-toxic attributes, and cost-effectiveness. However, the increased adoption of LFP batteries has led to a surge in spent LFP battery disposal. Improper handling of waste LFP batteries could result in adverse consequences, including environmental degradation and the mismanagement of valuable secondary resources. This paper presents a comprehensive examination of waste LFP battery treatment methods, encompassing a holistic analysis of their recycling impact across five dimensions: resources, energy, environment, economy, and society. The recycling of waste LFP batteries is not only crucial for reducing the environmental pollution caused by hazardous components but also enables the valuable components to be efficiently recycled, promoting resource utilization. This, in turn, benefits the sustainable development of the energy industry, contributes to economic gains, stimulates social development, and enhances employment rates. Therefore, the recycling of discarded LFP batteries is both essential and inevitable. In addition, the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, including governments, corporations, and communities, in the realm of waste LFP battery recycling are also scrutinized, underscoring their pivotal engagement and collaboration. Notably, this paper concentrates on surveying the current research status and technological advancements within the waste LFP battery lifecycle, and juxtaposes their respective merits and drawbacks, thus furnishing a comprehensive evaluation and foresight for future progress.
... Further, the recycling or disposal value chain of the LIBs is not considered at the design stage, proving that techno-optimism has failed. Mossali et al., ( 2020) and Yu et al., (2022) are also in a similar view and further emphasize the importance of doing further research to identify cost competitive, less harmful practical solution for LIB recycling. Also, the logistics and other handling solutions need to be solved. ...
The circular economy is a system in which resources and energy are derived from renewable sources, utilized efficiently, recycled, and reused to reduce waste, reduce nonrenewable resource consumption, and mitigate negative environmental impacts. However, it poses moral questions about sustainability, the environment, and societal issues. Many societies face challenges when implementing the circular economy, as the concept is still young. The equitable distribution of the advantages and costs of circularity should be ensured during implementation, as some communities, particularly disadvantaged or marginalized ones, may suffer unfairly disproportionately from the harmful effects of production and recycling facilities. Prioritizing the health and safety of workers, communities, and the environment is essential, and strict rules must be implemented to guard against harm. However, most underdeveloped countries need a legal safeguard for this situation. The ultimate objective of the circular economy is to improve social, environmental, and economic performance, but its implementation also requires consideration of the ethics of care and non-epistemic values. Those are often hindered in underdeveloped countries, as the availability of infrastructure and technology, affordability, and legislative framework are poor. To achieve long-term success in the circular economy, evaluating implementation steps and considering health, safety, environmental, and social risks is crucial. To implement the circular economy, respect ethics of care and non-epistemic values. Adopt Kantian Ethics and control technology design to ensure equal benefits for all involved. Ethical gaps may lead underdeveloped countries to generate social pressure against the circular economy.
... This is included in the ExNef term, related to accelerating innovation and introducing a breakthrough in transport technology, which was less relevant in the historical picture, as "household transport" has not experienced a real alternative since the 1980s. As ExNef deals with innovation, it can assess the effectiveness of JTF, which supports the economic diversification and reconversion of the territories by means of research and innovation and the creation of new firms (for instance, producing fuel cells and batteries and their recycling [43]). This also shows that any policy that foresees a synergy between the two funds (JTF and SCF) could optimize the outcomes of the intervention on income and innovation. ...
The European Green Deal comprises various policy initiatives with the goal of reaching carbon neutrality by 2050. The “Fit for 55 packages” include the Social Climate Fund, which aims to help, among others, vulnerable households and transport users meet the costs of the green energy transition. Thus, analyzing households’ expenditures and the associated carbon emissions is crucial to achieving a net-zero society. In the present study, we combine scenarios of households’ expenditures according to the Classification of Individual Consumption According to Purpose with economic decoupling scenarios to assess, for the first time, the European carbon budget allocation on a consumption basis. Expenditure projections based on socioeconomic scenarios were calculated using the Bayesian structural time series, and the associated emissions were estimated through the greenhouse gas intensity of the Gross Domestic Product. The model can be used to report the carbon budget of households and monitor the effectiveness of the measures funded by the Social Climate Fund. However, the emissions burden obtained by means of averaged greenhouse gas intensity of Gross Domestic Product results in a rough approximation of outcomes, and more accurate indicators should be developed across the member states.
... Their high energy density, low self-discharge, and long cycle life have made them an ideal power source for EVs. However, there are still challenges to overcome, including cost and safety concerns [105,106]. Research is ongoing to improve the performance and reduce the cost of lithium-ion batteries, as well as to develop new battery technologies that could eventually replace them. ...
... Additionally, recycling batteries reduces the environmental impact associated with mining, such as deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution. By recovering valuable materials, minimizing waste, and reducing environmental impact, battery recycling ensures that the transition to EVs remains truly eco-friendly [106,116,126,201]. As technologies and recycling infrastructure continue to advance, it is imperative to foster collaboration among stakeholders, encourage policy support, and promote consumer awareness to maximize the benefits of battery recycling and drive the sustainable future of EVs. ...
Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a promising solution to address environmental concerns and transform the transportation sector. This paper examines the state-of-the-art EVs, encompassing their history, definition, and different types. The advantages and limitations of each type are compared and contrasted, providing insights into their unique characteristics and potential applications. Critical components of EVs are thoroughly analyzed. The paper explores various types of batteries, emphasizing their features and potential for improving energy density, range, and charging capabilities. Charging infrastructure is discussed, highlighting the importance of establishing a robust network of charging stations. The impact of EVs on power grids is examined, emphasizing grid integration, load management, capacity upgrades, and power quality. Challenges and barriers hindering the wide adoption of EVs are identified, including technological limitations, infrastructure constraints, economic considerations, consumer perception, and policies. The paper delves into the environmental and economic impacts of EVs, including lifecycle analysis, air pollution reduction, and cost-effectiveness. Thus, the paper provides valuable insights into the current state of EVs and their potential to shape the future. The findings highlight the need for collaborative efforts from industry stakeholders, governments, researchers, and consumers to overcome challenges and accelerate the transition to a sustainable transportation system.
