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Comparison of PLA price versus PS and PET prices at given crude oil and sugar feedstock prices (copied from Verbruggen, 2013).
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This report presents an overview of facts and figures regarding bio-based and/or biodegradable plastics, in particular for packaging applications.
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Context 1
... general the prices of bio-based plastics are more stable. If oil prices are high a commodity plastic like PS is more expensive than PLA (Figure 9). However, even today with low oil prices, PLA prices in the US are very close to market prices of general purpose PS and PET (Vink, 2016). ...
Citations
... Correct decision making at the production level, consumer utilization and end of life waste management practices have far reaching consequences on the sustainability and circularity potential of the plastic value chain (Lacovidou et al., 2019;Joseph et al., 2023). In order to fit into the chain of circularity and adding value to the product design of the products is critically important, currently bio-PE and bio-PET are among the novel plastics that can be recycled in the same waste stream where there conventional counterparts exists (Bergsma et al., 2017;Robertson, 2014;Schoenmakere et al., 2018), whereas, PLA presents a challenge instead of the opportunity, which is because of the requirement of the special sorting conditions for recycling from the main stream waste (Van den Oever et al., 2017;Lim et al., 2023). ...
Plastics are one of the best innovations of twenty-first century serving the humanity in all sectors of life such as agriculture, packaging, automotive, construction and healthcare. With ever increasing demand and ease of processability, plastic production is increasing at a rapid pace thus piling up huge amount of waste in the environment. Lack of infrastructure for plastic waste management, poorly managed recycling facilities and technologies, in-efficient waste collection systems, wrong and unrestrained disposal practices and lack of awareness contributes towards making plastic waste management an open challenge and a threat to the global environment. Previously, the best suited available strategies for plastic waste management include incineration, landfilling, and recycling and reuse, but they were not considered sufficient to tackle the large volume of the problem. Due to lack of infrastructure and management about 80% of the globally produced plastic had not been recycled in any form. Furthermore, the high cost associated with the recycling regarding sorting and processing makes recycling economically least feasible and non-sustainable. The resource circularity of plastic waste includes depolymerization of the waste polymer at the end-of-life cycle into the monomers followed by bio-upcycling to another value-added product thus entering into another life cycle. Talking about the economic validity and feasibility of bio-upcycling technology of plastic waste to produce value-added products, bio-upcycling is considered as a promising strategy as it involves transformation of depolymerized monomers from any route, may it be chemical or biological transformation, into the value-added products using endogenous or engineered metabolic pathways of already existing biological systems. In this review, bio-upcycling of plastic waste as a solution to the current limitations of traditional plastic waste management practices was discussed. Moreover, the biotechnological routes for the upcycling of plastic wastes into value-added products and economic circularity of the polymers were also described. Furthermore, the opportunities and challenges for promoting the circularity of plastic waste were also discussed.
... According to European Bioplastics, a plastic substance is a bioplastic if it is either biobased, biodegradable, or has both characteristics. [21] Biodegradable: A biological process in which microbial activity helps a polymer break down into smaller particles, releasing methane, water, and carbon dioxide in the process. The thickness and content of the material affect how the polymer degrades biologically [20] Degradable: The process through which abiotic forces including UV radiation, oxygen attack, and biological attack break down a polymer into smaller pieces. ...
... Degradable plastics most frequently used are made of polyethylene. [21] Bio-based: Both biodegradable and biobased plastics, which are produced, at least in part, from biomass or natural resources, are referred to as "bio-based" materials. They are recyclable, however it's unclear whether or not they degrade naturally. ...
... For instance, PLA is appropriate for both types of full degradation. [21] There are three basic kinds or classes of bioplastics in order to have a good understanding of them. These are fossil-based biodegradable bioplastics, biobased biodegradable bioplastics, and biobased non-biodegradable bioplastics (Figure 3). ...
... Nevertheless, considering the high price of bio-PBS, ca. 4€/kg, 39 Figure S4. ...
... These factors include the availability of raw materials from renewable sources, the scalability of the production processes, the biodegradability characteristics (durability, degradation conditions and end-of-life treatment) and the cost (Zhao et al., 2020). Cost considerations extend beyond raw material recovery to encompass processing costs, making it crucial for biopolymers to align with market demands and compete favorably with traditional petrochemical polymers, known for their mechanical properties and often lower costs (Döhler et al., 2022;van den Oever et al., 2017). ...
... Though many bioplastics boast of being biodegradable, they all have their limitations. Some bioplastics, like polylactic acid (PLA), need to be composted on a large scale to biodegrade (Van de Oever et al., 2017). Thus, promoting the adoption of bioplastics and establishing proper infrastructure for effective handling of bioplastic waste should be prioritized. ...
In recent years, the world has been navigating through a series of crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine war, climate change, and massive food waste that have profoundly disrupted global waste management systems. The 2019 COVID-19 pandemic and the 2022 Russia-Ukraine war (RUW) exposed and aggravated the plastic system's inherent inefficiencies, which endanger society's commitment to a sustainable plastics system. Besides, climate change and colossal food waste are also recent issues that need proper value-added waste management systems. Energy prices experienced a drastic fall and rise due to these world crises. The COVID-19 time significantly affected the existing waste management system. Various factors influence how garbage is managed, such as shifts in waste quantity, variety, frequency, location, and risk. When the benefits and drawbacks of plastic are considered, a fair evaluation suggests that consumers' careless actions, negative attitudes, and lack of awareness are the major drivers leading to improper management, which in turn switches plastic into a harmful pollutant of the environment. This study analyzed recent effects, difficulties, policies and legislations, technology, and innovations in waste management as a response to COVID-19. Besides, the impact of RUW and climate change on global oil prices and how waste management industries could help to control the situation have been discussed. The method of food waste management system and the effectiveness of the circular economy and work-from-home concept on waste management systems have been analyzed. The need for resilient waste management systems capable of adapting to dynamic situations has been highlighted. The challenges, technological strategies, and recommendations for a sustainable future were discussed.
... Most compostable materials will not leave behind any residues, eventually converted into nutrients that can be used by plants (Gioia et al., 2021). Compostable bioplastics only break down in a carefully managed, high-heat composting system (i.e. an industrial system) which is inconvenient to many (Oever et al., 2017). There is also a debate whether bioplastics could cause damage when they are composted as they change the soil pH to be more acidic, polluting both land and ocean depending on the contents and additives (Fairs, 2019). ...
... For the new bio-based polymers, the last few decades highlighted a chicken and the egg issue: large brands often cannot use bioplastics because they have limited supplies (including a reduced number of producers), yet supplies will not be established until a demand is present. Additionally, bioplastics tend to be more costly than fossil-based alternatives are [217,218]. Although bioplastics can offer new features, such as superior barrier properties in breathable packaging, they still lag behind the properties of fossil-based plastics in highly demanding applications (e.g., under-the-hood automotive parts). ...
... Bioplastics tend to be more costly than traditional plastics do, and they do not necessarily match their properties [219,220]. This uncertainty reduces the number of producing firms, which limits the market's confidence in supply stability [217,218]. Moreover, learning effects that optimize costs are reduced due to the limited production capacity available [28,250]. ...
Environmental and social impacts caused by petrochemical plastics are generating significant concerns on a global scale. Bioplastics can contribute to the transition to more sustainable materials, but they did not expand at the expected rates in the early 2000s. With recent predictions indicating that the bioplastic capacities will almost triple in the next five years, what are the conditions that may now be combined to justify and enable such an expansion? This paper uses the case of PLA and general insights into other bioplastics (stylized facts) to detail these conditions. The results show that many bioplastics remained unused during the 20th Century, with interest increasing when plastic pollution became flagrant in the 1980s. For PLA, many efforts have been made to solve the technical and market issues, including through intense cooperation among stakeholders. While environmental concerns have propelled bioplastics, the general absence of structured end-of-life alternatives (e.g., recycling and composting infrastructures) hinders their diffusion. Conversely, the expanding regulations related to plastic pollution are now the primary driver of the growth of bioplastics. Therefore, for bioplastics, and especially PLA, the conditions seem to be emerging for them to diffuse at the predicted rates, but structural limitations in the bioplastics value chain still compromise the large-scale substitution of petrochemicals. This trend indicates that establishing end-of-life alternatives for bioplastics could help to remove the bottleneck in their diffusion process.
... One of the main challenges is represented by the high price of bioplastics production: many bioplastic materials significantly exceed the costs of the fossil-based plastics used for the same or similar applications, although in some cases price competitiveness is in sight [385]. ...
The depletion of fossil resources and the growing demand for plastic waste reduction has put industries and academic researchers under pressure to develop increasingly sustainable packaging solutions that are both functional and circularly designed. In this review, we provide an overview of the fundamentals and recent advances in biobased packaging materials, including new materials and techniques for their modification as well as their end-of-life scenarios. We also discuss the composition and modification of biobased films and multilayer structures, with particular attention to readily available drop-in solutions, as well as coating techniques. Moreover, we discuss end-of-life factors, including sorting systems, detection methods, composting options, and recycling and upcycling possibilities. Finally, regulatory aspects are pointed out for each application scenario and end-of-life option. Moreover, we discuss the human factor in terms of consumer perception and acceptance of upcycling.
... Worldwide, 400 million tonnes of plastics are produced from petroleum, whereas plant-based polymers still hardly play a role with only 2.11 million tonnes [1]. This is because the price of bioplastics is 4 to 10 times more expensive or confidence in them is still low [2,3]. Sustainable alternatives are therefore needed that reduce dependence on fossil raw materials without significantly restricting consumption. ...
Wood-plastic composite (WPC) saves plastics, but products are still limited to linear decking and cladding. For advanced productions of three-dimensional WPCs, design principles were derived from seven published pre-studies on thermoforming. For this, a combined method of polymer research and socio-technological investigations reported in WPC research as compolytics-approach, derived a total effect-model for thermoforming and developed a decision tree with target group-specific settings of production parameters. Fourteen application-relevant material properties were influenced (p = 0.001) by thermoforming, with the strongest effects on colour (max. R2 = 0.93), followed by strength criteria (max. R2 = 0.41). Satisfying private deciders’ preferences for optimal façade appearance, a highest possible temperature should be applied for narrow bending under high wood content. Professionals value maximal strength, which demands a compound-independent wider bending at lower heat. The applicability of the design principles was assessed by case studies serving further research on WPC product development.
... Bio-based polymers have been used successfully for fishing gear making [140][141][142]. However, bio-based polymer production and use are still under debate [143][144][145] due to high costs (2-4 times more than oil-based plastics) [108], non-ideal mechanical properties, lack of waste management infrastructures, water footprint and substantial land use [146]. Moreover, the transition towards bio-based plastics may be misleading since not all biobased plastics are biodegradable, e.g., bio-PE [147]. ...
Although (micro)plastic contamination is a worldwide concern, most scientific literature only restates that issue rather than presenting strategies to cope with it. This critical review assembles the current knowledge on policies and responses to tackle plastic pollution, including peer-reviewed scientific literature, gray literature and relevant reports to provide: (1) a timeline of policies directly or indirectly addressing microplastics; (2) the most up-to-date upstream responses to prevent microplastics pollution, such as circular economy, behavioral change, development of bio-based polymers and market-based instruments as well as source-specific strategies, focusing on the clothing industry, tire and road wear particles, antifouling paints and recreational activities; (3) a set of downstream responses tackling microplastics, such as waste to energy, degradation, water treatment plants and litter clean-up strategies; and examples of (4) multifaceted responses focused on both mitigating and preventing microplastics pollution, e.g., approaches implemented in fisheries and aquaculture facilities. Preventive strategies and multifaceted responses are postulated as pivotal to handling the exacerbated release of microplastics in the environment, while downstream responses stand out as auxiliary strategies to the chief upstream responses. The information gathered here bridges the knowledge gaps on (micro)plastic pollution by providing a synthesized baseline material for further studies addressing this environmental issue.
