Figure - available from: Current Psychology
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
Exemplary stimuli. Note. Screenshots are taken from six of the 15 videos used as stimulus material, depicting the Emergency Room video (a), the Horses video (b), the Hotel Room video (c), the Bunker video (d), the Bar video (e), and the Planetarium video (f). The slightly distorted display of the screenshots results from being captured with a conventional video player instead of a 360° compatible program. During the experiment, the videos were displayed without distortion
Source publication
Virtual reality is a promising tool for experimental psychology, enhancing the ecological validity of psychological science. The advantage of VR is that it enables researchers to study emotional and cognitive processes under realistic conditions while maintaining strict experimental control. To make it easier for scientists to get into the world of...
Citations
... In the realm of psychology, the use of immersive VR environments for the formation of autobiographical mem ory was explored, where the innovative use of immersive 3D/360° VR environments significantly enhanced mem ory formation and cognitive processes. However, challen ges such as simulation sickness and the need to ensure us er comfort in immersive VR were also identified, which are critical for the broader application of VR in experime ntal psychology (Benjamin Schöne et al., 2021) [21]. ...
This research delves into the novel integration of artificial intelligence (AI)--powered virtual reality (VR) ecological simulations within immersive cultural exhibitions. It emphasizes these simulations' role in augmenting sensory engagement and eliciting more robust emotional responses from audiences. AI-driven ecological simulations can be effectively applied in immersive exhibition design to transform and enhance audience interactions and experiences on an emotional and sensory level. The study employs a multifaceted research methodology, encompassing a comprehensive literature review to establish a theoretical foundation, in-depth case study analyses for practical insights, and empirical data collection from online public sources to gauge current trends and audience reception. We found that underscores the profound potential of AI-driven VR ecological simulations. Enhance sensory and emotional engagement significantly, providing evidence of their efficacy in creating more compelling and memorable exhibition experiences. These insights lay the groundwork for future AI and VR technology applications in cultural exhibitions, highlighting the imperative for innovative and interactive approaches that seek to engage audiences in more meaningful and immersive ways.
... Producing a 360° VR Video with professional actors is high in effort, time and money. Initiatives such as demonstrated by Schöne et al. (2023b) or Li et al. (2017) to develop an open-source database for immersive VR 360° videos are very encouraging and will hopefully produce imitations. Freely accessible VR videos can also be found online at popular video sharing websites. ...
Verbal content analyses to differentiate truthful and fabricated statements, such as the Criteria-Based Content Analysis (CBCA), are used in lie detection research as well as in practice to assess the credibility of statements in criminal court proceedings. Meta-analyses demonstrate validity of verbal content analyses above chance, but the traditional research paradigms usually lack either ecological or internal validity. The authors discuss the usage of immersive virtual reality scenarios to solve this dilemma, as both types of validity can be increased by this approach. In this integrative review of existing literature on the current use of virtual scenarios in forensic and victimology research, the authors extract strengths and limitations for possible VR studies in the context of verbal content analysis. Furthermore, novel ethical challenges involved are summarized and implications for future studies proposed. Overall, we argue in favor of using virtual reality scenarios to validate methods for verbal content analysis, but also urge to consider ethical limitations regarding unwanted short- and long-term aftereffects.
... VR allows to present diverse stimuli in a conceptually plausible context and at the same time maintain high experimental control. It enhances the naturalism of conventional laboratory designs by presenting stimuli in real-world dimensions with depth and spatial proximity, yielding behavioral and neural responses akin to real-life scenarios (Blascovich et al., 2002;Gabana et al., 2017;Gromer et al., 2018;Kisker, Lange, et al., 2021;Newman et al., 2022;Rubo & Gamer, 2018;Schöne et al., 2019;Schöne et al., 2023;Schöne, Kisker, et al., 2021;Van Den Oever et al., 2022;Xu et al., 2021). Despite the fact that participants are aware of the virtual nature of their environment and stimuli (e.g., avatars), a potential bias similar to artificial environment awareness in laboratory studies (McCambridge et al., 2014), the immersive VR experience allows for individuals' faces to be perceived as close to lifelike. ...
... Further evidence that different modalities yield altered cognitive-affective processes comes from previous studies comparing cognitive and emotional processes in conventional laboratory settings with realistic VR conditions, highlighting the limited ecological validity of laboratory methods Pan & Hamilton, 2018;Parsons, 2015;Snow & Culham, 2021). Attentional, motivational, and memory processes operate differently in realistic compared to laboratory | 3 of 25 SAGEHORN et al. conditions Kisker, Lange, et al., 2021;Schöne, Kisker, et al., 2021;. The transfer of established paradigms to realistic VR conditions not only changes the extent of the effects but also their morphology. ...
... As several studies investigating emotional and cognitive processing properties under more realistic conditions have already shown, providing a realistic and immersive experience where different types of stimuli are presented in real-world dimensions reveals unique neural mechanisms that are not evident under conventional laboratory conditions (Blascovich et al., 2002;Gabana et al., 2017;Gromer et al., 2018;Kisker, Lange, et al., 2021;Newman et al., 2022;Rubo & Gamer, 2018;Schöne et al., 2019;Schöne et al., 2023;Schöne, Kisker, et al., 2021;Van Den Oever et al., 2022;Xu et al., 2021). ...
Human face perception is a specialized visual process with inherent social significance. The neural mechanisms reflecting this intricate cognitive process have evolved in spatially complex and emotionally rich environments. Previous research using VR to transfer an established face perception paradigm to realistic conditions has shown that the functional properties of face‐sensitive neural correlates typically observed in the laboratory are attenuated outside the original modality. The present study builds on these results by comparing the perception of persons and objects under conventional laboratory (PC) and realistic conditions in VR. Adhering to established paradigms, the PC‐ and VR modalities both featured images of persons and cars alongside standard control images. To investigate the individual stages of realistic face processing, response times, the typical face‐sensitive N170 component, and relevant subsequent components (L1, L2; pre‐, post‐response) were analyzed within and between modalities. The between‐modality comparison of response times and component latencies revealed generally faster processing under realistic conditions. However, the obtained N170 latency and amplitude differences showed reduced discriminative capacity under realistic conditions during this early stage. These findings suggest that the effects commonly observed in the lab are specific to monitor‐based presentations. Analyses of later and response‐locked components showed specific neural mechanisms for identification and evaluation are employed when perceiving the stimuli under realistic conditions, reflected in discernible amplitude differences in response to faces and objects beyond the basic perceptual features. Conversely, the results do not provide evidence for comparable stimulus‐specific perceptual processing pathways when viewing pictures of the stimuli under conventional laboratory conditions.
... Hence, considering that approach-avoidance conflicts are a hallmark of anxiety-related behaviors and that the Elevated Plus-maze (EPM) is the gold standard task to assess this behavior in rodents (Biedermann et al., 2022), we aimed to develop a human version of this test using a VR setup. We have selected this methodology because it provides a first-person perspective that enables participants to experience a direct influence from the virtual environment leading to genuine physiological and behavioral responses (Schöne et al., 2021). Besides, VR scenarios along with the measurement of different biomarkers might provide an answer regarding identification of at-risk patients (Mazza et al., 2021). ...
Stressful events appear to be risky situations that can precipitate the consumption of drugs. One way to recreate stressful contexts, in an ecological and controlled method, is through immersive virtual reality (VR). In our study, we designed the scenario of an elevated plus-maze (EPM) using VR, which is widely used in animal models to assess unconditioned anxiety. This task allowed us to analyze the behavioral, psychophysiological (heart rate and electrodermal activity), and hormonal response (salivary cortisol and Alpha-amylase) to this stressful situation in different moments (before VR task (anticipation), at the end of the task and 10 minutes later) in young people with problematic alcohol use (AU, n = 27), alcohol combined with cannabis consumption (AU + C, n = 10), as well as in a control group (CO, n = 33). Behavioral analysis revealed that the AU group displayed fewer entries into open arms than the CO group, whereas both experimental groups spent less time at the end of the open arms, as well as lower time by look down index compared to the CO group. Moreover, our VR EPM induced different psychophysiological responses in the different moments measured. In general, electrodermal activity seemed to be a good biomarker of recovery from a stressful situation, as once the exposure to the stressful situation ended, the AU + C group took longer to recover compared to the CO group. Regarding hormonal analyses, we observed a similar response pattern in all groups suggesting that our VR task was able to activate both stress systems. The alpha-amylase to cortisol ratio, proposed as a biomarker of stress systems dysregulation, was higher in the group of young participants with alcohol abuse. Interestingly, our VR EPM was able to induce a slight alcohol craving in both experimental groups. In conclusion, our results suggest certain subtle behavioral and physiological differences that could be used to detect young individuals at risk of future severe addictions or other stress-related comorbidities. Moreover, it could help us to develop prevention strategies focused on emotional, cognitive, and psychophysiological aspects.
... With the increased availability of virtual reality systems and advanced technology, immersive visualization is gaining more attention and popularity, with applications for research in many scientific fields, such as in [1] and [2], [3]. In paleontology, many fossils that have real importance to scientific research are fragile, unique, or difficult to manipulate due to their large weight. ...
... Realism summaries that compared to 2D-setups, iVR research or intervention more closely resemble the physical reality to which human brains have evolved (Schöne et al., 2023). Accordingly, object recognition, attention, and memory are enhanced for 3D content compared to 2D pictures of the same content, and generally elicit different neurological, emotional, motor, and behavioral responses compared to 2D scenes (e.g., Helminen et al., 2019;Kisker et al., 2021a;Schöne, Kisker et al., 2021; for review see Snow & Culham, 2021). ...
... At present, 3D-360°-videos are a solution to create social VR scenarios with realistically looking and behaving digital humans (Li et al., 2017;Schöne, Kisker et al., 2021), yet the videos have the serious limitation that people cannot interact with persons in videos but take on the role of observers. Observing other people without direct interaction also occurs in physical daily life and might thus be relevant for some research questions regarding person perception and impression formation. ...
... Although we could review only a small portion of the existing research on iVR in the different areas, it is evident that iVR offers many advantages, among them a level of realism with simultaneous experimental control that exceeds existing everyday life up to the point of creating (fantasy) situations that cannot be experienced in the physical world (Banakou et al., 2016;McCall & Blascovich, 2002;Yee & Bailenson, 2007). Also, information processing differed in iVR substantially from the presentation of pictures and videos in 2D (Kisker et al., 2021a;Schöne, Kisker et al., 2021). For example, deciding for or against a person in a dating app might differ from the decision that happens when meeting the same person in virtual reality or everyday life. ...
Immersive virtual reality (iVR), that is, digital stereoscopic 360° scenarios usually presented in head-mounted displays, has gained much popularity in medical, educational, and consumer contexts in the last years. Only recently, psychological research started to utilize the theoretical and methodological advantages of iVR. Furthermore, understanding cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes in iVR similar to real-life is a genuinely psychological, currently understudied topic. This article briefly reviews the current application of iVR in psychological research and related disciplines. The review presents empirical evidence for opportunities and strengths (e.g., realism, experimental control, effectiveness of therapeutic and educational interventions) as well as challenges and weaknesses (e.g., differences in experiencing presence, interacting with VR content including avatars). The main part discusses areas requiring additional basic research, such as cognitive processes, socio-emotional processes during social interactions in iVR, and possible societal implications (e.g., fraud, VR-addiction). For both research and application, iVR offers a contemporary extension of the psychological toolkit, offering new avenues to investigate and enhance core phenomena of psychology such as cognition, affect, motivation, and behavior. Still, it is crucial to exercise caution in its application as excessive and careless use of iVR can pose a significant risk to individuals' mental and physical well-being.
... However, the influence of stimuli emotional valence on memory performance in VR settings requires further investigation. Indeed, some research suggested that perceived emotional valence may change depending on the coding context, with the same stimulus eliciting even opposite emotions between VR and 2D conditions (Schöne et al., 2021). Conversely, the present results highlight that typicality was relevant only in the real-life coding context, in which objects that were less commonly found within an office were recalled more often. ...
The present study tested the influence of stimuli emotional valence, emotional arousal, and typicality on memory recollection in three groups of participants exposed to the same environment through different modalities: in vivo exposure (i.e., real-life), 3D virtual reality (i.e., VR), and 2D pictures. Context-related free-recall, recognition accuracy, and recognition confidence were analyzed. The results showed that memory performance was best in the real-life modality, and participants in the VR and 2D pictures modalities performed comparably. Interesting effects of stimuli emotional valence and typicality emerged: in the VR and 2D pictures modalities, positive items were better recalled than negative items; typicality was relevant only in the real-life modality, with less common objects within the explored setting (i.e., an office) recalled more often. Furthermore, recognition accuracy and confidence were significantly higher in the real-life modality than in the VR and 2D pictures modalities. Further research is needed to support the creation of VR environments that are sufficiently comparable to real-life contexts in order to obtain higher ecological validity in studies of cognitive performance. In particular, the impact of stimuli typicality and emotional valence in VR contexts should be investigated to gain insight into how these features might improve memory recall in virtual scenarios.
... The study found that virtual reality technology could improve environmental science research and help researchers overcome some of their challenges. Schöne et al. (2021) reviewed virtual reality in neuroscience research. The authors suggested using virtual reality technology to study how the brain reacts to stimuli and processes information [8]. ...
... Schöne et al. (2021) reviewed virtual reality in neuroscience research. The authors suggested using virtual reality technology to study how the brain reacts to stimuli and processes information [8]. The study found that virtual reality could revolutionize neuroscience research and reveal new brain functions. ...
... Participants can explore, experience, interact and even act while interacting with simulated scenarios at different levels depending on the genre used. For instance, 360-degree, or immersive, VR combines 360-degree videos and VR headsets to create a realistic and responsive environment with less interaction (Kim et al., 2022;Schöne et al., 2021;Snelson & Hsu, 2020). On the other hand, computer-generated 3D VR environments are various fully immersive VR scenarios in which movement, interaction and manipulation are possible through the use of game engines such as Unity or Unreal (Jamei et al., 2017;Velev & Zlateva, 2017). ...
Environmental sustainability is one of the major global topics of the 21st century. In order to effectively include the concept of sustainability in the topic of environmental education, educators are responsible for incorporating the concept into the existing curriculum. However, it may not always be possible to conduct field studies based on environmental education due to economic, transport, and time constraints, while certain situations and conditions may be particularly difficult to replicate. One recent solution to this problem is the application of Virtual Reality technology, which has been shown in various recent studies. VR is a computer-generated three-dimensional environment that allows the user to perceive content more realistically. In the process of teaching sustainability issues such as climate change, waste management, food consumption, air and water pollution, and deforestation, the present study has revealed that cooperation between different fields of expertise, including science education and computer and instructional technologies, plays an important role.
... Other research has attempted to demonstrate how VR differs or is comparable with other methods for emotion elicitation. Many studies have compared VR to 2D videos (Baños et al., 2004;Chirico et al., 2017;Gilpin et al., 2021;Hidaka et al., 2017;Liao et al., 2019;Rivu et al., 2021;Schöne et al., 2021), and the majority of them found a greater power of VR in terms of awe experiences (Chirico et al., 2017), "Effectiveness", "Efficiency", and "Environmental setting" in eliciting emotions (Hidaka et al., 2017) general and spatial presence , physiological arousal and sense of presence (Gilpin et al., 2021). Another study revealed instead similar results for psychological and physiological arousal levels in both videos and VR, except for fear (Liao et al., 2019). ...
... Specific elements have been used to induce certain emotions; for example, waterfall, mountains, and space view (Chirico et al., 2017), lake view (Chirico & Gaggioli, 2019), earth's landscapes, cityscapes, and a view of the planet from Earth's orbit (Quesnel & Riecke, 2018) have been used as awe elicitors. Similarly, other authors have used natural elements to induce both positive and negative emotions (Calogiuri et al., 2018;Dozio et al., 2021Dozio et al., , 2022Gromer et al., 2019;Hidaka et al., 2017;Hinkle et al., 2019;Liao et al., 2019;Schöne et al., 2021). For instance, exposure to nature, including blue and green natural environments, has been shown to have a variety of physical and mental health advantages (for example, improved emotional states, reduced risk of mental health concerns, and improved cardiovascular functioning) (Li et al., 2021). ...
... The former is created using specific computer programs like Unity allowing to construct of anything imaginable, from realistic scenarios to those completely fanciful, with the possibility to interact with them in many ways. A substantial part of studies that have used VR to arouse emotions has employed computer-generated environments (Baños et al., 2004;Bouchard, 2010;Brivio et al., 2021;Cebeci et al., 2019;Dozio et al., 2021Dozio et al., , 2022Felnhofer et al., 2015;Gilpin et al., 2021;Gromer et al., 2019;Hidaka et al., 2017;Hinkle et al., 2019;Hofmann et al., 2021;Li et al., 2017;Liao et al., 2019;Meuleman & Rudrauf, 2021;Riva et al., 2007;Rivu et al., 2021;Rodríguez et al., 2013;Schöne et al., 2021) whose realism is limited by the power of the hardware. However, those studies that used 360 • videos (Brivio et al., 2021;Calogiuri et al., 2018;Chirico et al., 2017;Chirico & Gaggioli, 2019;Higuera-Trujillo et al., 2017;Jun et al., 2020;Li et al., 2017;Marín-Morales et al., 2019Quesnel & Riecke, 2018;Schöne et al., 2021;Teo & Chia, 2018;Yu et al., 2022) chose natural environments except for Higuera-Trujillo and colleagues' study which used interior shopping environment (Higuera-Trujillo et al., 2017), Teo & Chia's study which used roller coaster (Teo & Chia, 2018), the two studies of Marín-Morales which employed a museum (Marín-Morales et al., 2019, and the one of Yu and colleagues which used also non-natural scenarios (Yu et al., 2022). ...
