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-Coccolithophores. A, Coronosphaera mediterranea HOL (formerly "Calyptrolithina wettsteinii"); B, Calcidiscus leptoporus; C, Zygosphaera hellenica; D, Syracosphaera pulchra; E, Syracosphaera molischii; F, Syracosphaera halldalii; G, Helicosphaera carteri HOL (for. "Syracolithus confusus"); H, Helicosphaera carteri HOL (for. "Syracolithus catilliferus"); I, Umbilicosphaera sibogae; J, Holococcosphaera dentate (for. "Calyptrosphaera"); K, Coccoliths of Emiliania huxleyi on sediment; L, Rhabdosphaera clavigera.
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The present study used scanning electron microscopy to characterize the organisms colonizing marine plastic debris collected from pelagic and benthic habitats across Mediterranean coastal waters of Greece, Italy and Spain. A total of 42 fragments of plastic were collected during the COMSOM experimental cruise, 16 from the seafloor and 26 from surfa...
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Context 1
... analysis of pelagic and benthic plastics us- ing a scanning electron microscope evidenced that the frequencies of eight large groups of coloniz- ers qualitatively differentiated surface and seabed MPD microfouling communities (Table 1). Diatoms (Fig. 2) appeared in almost 100% of both benthic and pelagic MPD sampled. Dinoflagellates (Fig. 3) occurred in more than 50% of the pelagic MPD sampled, but rarely (13%) on benthic MPD. Cocco- lithophores (Fig. 4) were attached on both benthic and pelagic MPD, occurring with a relatively high frequency (Table 1). Fungi were the second group in frequency of appearance (Fig. 5L) on pelagic MPD, but this group only appeared sporadically on benthic MPD. Faecal pellets were detected in both domains although they were more frequently recorded on pe- lagic MPD. Benthic and pelagic MPD had a very distinct appear- ance. Pelagic MPD was characterized, in most cases, by a well-developed biofilm containing a high amount of bacteria, fungi and diatoms (Fig. 5M). Bacteria were present in all analysed samples from both pelagic (Fig. 5A, B, C) and benthic MPD. However, benthic MPD was covered by sediment, basically clay (Fig. 6A, C), which complicated identification of organisms. Benthic MPD was characterized by high quantities of sessile and pedunculated protozoans (Fig. 6A, B, C, D), as well as bryozoan colonies (Fig. 6H) (Table 1). Polychaetes (Fig. 6G) were also identified with a moderate frequency and different species of hydrozoans were detected sporadi- cally in both pelagic (Fig. 5D, E, F) and benthic MPD (Fig. 6E). Foraminifera were also identified in several communities (Fig. 6I) from benthic ...
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... were identified on both pelagic and benthic MPD (Table 1) but coccospheres appeared only on pelagic MPD (Fig. 4A, B, C, D, G), while indi- vidual coccoliths were relatively abundant on benthic MPD. Emiliania huxleyi was the most abundant spe- cies on benthic and pelagic MPD, where it appeared in large quantities (Fig. 4K). Several species of Syra- cosphaera (S. pulchra, S. halldalii, S. molischii) (Fig. 4D, E, F) were highly frequent on pelagic MPD. Addi- tional species identified on pelagic plastics were Syra- colithus confusus, Calcidiscus leptoporus, Corono- sphaera mediterranea HOL (formerly, Calyptrolithina Other biological structures such as eggs and jel- lyfish nematocysts were identified attached to pe- lagic MPD (Fig. 5G, H, I). Pollen grains appeared in some samples in great numbers. Different remains or pieces of copepods or other crustaceans were com- mon organic structures. However, the presence of unidentified organisms or structures was very com- mon (Fig. 5N, ...
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... were identified on both pelagic and benthic MPD (Table 1) but coccospheres appeared only on pelagic MPD (Fig. 4A, B, C, D, G), while indi- vidual coccoliths were relatively abundant on benthic MPD. Emiliania huxleyi was the most abundant spe- cies on benthic and pelagic MPD, where it appeared in large quantities (Fig. 4K). Several species of Syra- cosphaera (S. pulchra, S. halldalii, S. molischii) (Fig. 4D, E, F) were highly frequent on pelagic MPD. Addi- tional species identified on pelagic plastics were Syra- colithus confusus, Calcidiscus leptoporus, Corono- sphaera mediterranea HOL (formerly, Calyptrolithina Other biological structures such as eggs and jel- lyfish nematocysts were identified attached to pe- lagic MPD (Fig. 5G, H, I). Pollen grains appeared in some samples in great numbers. Different remains or pieces of copepods or other crustaceans were com- mon organic structures. However, the presence of unidentified organisms or structures was very com- mon (Fig. 5N, ...
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... were identified on both pelagic and benthic MPD (Table 1) but coccospheres appeared only on pelagic MPD (Fig. 4A, B, C, D, G), while indi- vidual coccoliths were relatively abundant on benthic MPD. Emiliania huxleyi was the most abundant spe- cies on benthic and pelagic MPD, where it appeared in large quantities (Fig. 4K). Several species of Syra- cosphaera (S. pulchra, S. halldalii, S. molischii) (Fig. 4D, E, F) were highly frequent on pelagic MPD. Addi- tional species identified on pelagic plastics were Syra- colithus confusus, Calcidiscus leptoporus, Corono- sphaera mediterranea HOL (formerly, Calyptrolithina Other biological structures such as eggs and jel- lyfish nematocysts were identified attached to pe- lagic MPD (Fig. 5G, H, I). Pollen grains appeared in some samples in great numbers. Different remains or pieces of copepods or other crustaceans were com- mon organic structures. However, the presence of unidentified organisms or structures was very com- mon (Fig. 5N, ...
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Citations
... Microscopy observations indicated that freshwater eukaryotic microbes of various trophic levels may represent a significant portion of plastisphere biodiversity (Carson et al., 2013;Oberbeckmann et al., 2014;Bryant et al., 2016;Masó et al., 2016), although high-throughput sequencing data are still limited (Kettner et al., 2017;Bhagwat et al., 2021;González-Pleiter et al., 2021;Li et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2021;Weig et al., 2021;Xue et al., 2021;Chaudhary et al., 2022;Di Pippo et al., 2022;Martínez-Campos et al., 2023;Miao et al., 2023;Song et al., 2023;Xu et al., 2024;Zhang et al., 2024). Different taxa of primary producers (Chlorophyta, Charophyta, Bacillariophyta), primary/secondary consumers (Peritrichia, Oligotrichia), mixotrophs (Dinophyceaea), saprotrophic/parasitic Frontiers in Microbiology 10 frontiersin.org ...
The plastisphere, a unique microbial biofilm community colonizing plastic debris and microplastics (MPs) in aquatic environments, has attracted increasing attention owing to its ecological and public health implications. This review consolidates current state of knowledge on freshwater plastisphere, focussing on its biodiversity, community assembly, and interactions with environmental factors. Current biomolecular approaches revealed a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic taxa associated with plastic surfaces. Despite their ecological importance, the presence of potentially pathogenic bacteria and mobile genetic elements (i.e., antibiotic resistance genes) raises concerns for ecosystem and human health. However, the extent of these risks and their implications remain unclear. Advanced sequencing technologies are promising for elucidating the functions of plastisphere, particularly in plastic biodegradation processes. Overall, this review emphasizes the need for comprehensive studies to understand plastisphere dynamics in freshwater and to support effective management strategies to mitigate the impact of plastic pollution on freshwater resources.
... The potential dispersal of harmful microalgae via plastic debris has previously been documented, mainly in the Mediterranean Sea [8][9][10][11][12]. The combination of increasing marine plastic waste in the ocean and harmful microalgae dispersal could pose a severe threat to our marine ecosystem. ...
... Previous studies have reported that long-distance transport of various microalgae species could naturally be accommodated through floating seaweeds, seagrasses, and detritus [31], migratory birds [32], or airborne [33]. On the other hand, anthropogenic-mediated transports of harmful microalgae via ship ballast water and plastic debris 070001-6 have also been documented [8,12,34,35]. Among possible consequences of their dispersal through plastic garbage and biological debris are the wider distribution range and higher prevalence in coastal waters. ...
... Others produce mucous-like substance that protect the cells while also assist their adhesion to their substrates. The production of extracellular polymeric substances by archaea and bacteria could also support the occurrence of other microorganisms, including microalgae, in the submerged plastic materials [12]. ...
Over eight million tons of plastic are dispersed into the marine ecosystems and account for~80% of the entire marine debris found in different oceanic depths, thus, making them one of the most disturbing global marine pollutions. This study investigated the potential role of plastic garbage and biological debris in dispersing harmful marine microalgae in Indonesian waters, particularly in the northern marine region of Jakarta. We focused on unraveling the biodiversity of microalgae species found in these collected garbage samples. Samplings were carried out in Tanjung Pasir Beach (TPB; October 10th, 2021) in Banten Province, and in Tidung Island , Jakarta, Indonesia (TI; February 2nd, 2022). Numerous plastic garbage and biological debris (i.e., seagrasses, seaweeds, and fallen leaves) were collected from the sandy shores and water surfaces by hand and stored in zip-lock bags. Epiphytic microalgae and other particles were detached from these samples by spraying them with filtered seawater followed by vigorous manual shaking. The resulting seawater suspensions were transferred into 50 ml Falcon tubes, enriched using IMK or F/2 medium or preserved using glutaraldehyde. Samples were subsequently observed under microscopes, and encountered microalgae cells were isolated, photographed, and identified morphologically using identification keys. Less than 50 microalgae taxa were identified from the garbage samples, with the diatoms as the predominant component (29 taxa), followed by the dinoflagellates (19 taxa). Of these, several taxa were identified as potentially harmful due to their phycotoxins-producing and/or bloom-forming ability reported in other studies. The present study is the first to highlight the potential role of plastic garbage and debris in dispersing potentially harmful microalgae in Indonesia, which, therefore, could aggravate their detrimental impacts on the marine environments.
... Mishra et al., 2022). Particularly, benthic pennate diatoms are reported to be very common on marine plastic debris because they are able to firmly attach to plastic surface, thus persisting even in high energy conditions, as during the wave motion (Reisser et al., 2014;Masó et al., 2016). ...
This work focuses on the arenaceous reefs by the polychaete Sabellaria spinulosa and addresses microplastics pollution. The main aim is to assess microplastics amount in a bioconstruction located in the Adriatic coast of Italy (Mediterranean Sea) through a comparative approach: sea-floor sediment and bioconstruction samples were analysed to quantify microplastics absolute abundance in both substrates. A total of 431 MPs were found in the investigated substrates: respectively 85 % fibers and 15 % fragments. Multivariate analysis indicates that MPs within bioconstruction occur in higher abundances and with different morphologies than in sediment samples. The analysis of bioconstruction polished sections allowed for observation of MPs agglutinated in their original position: higher concentration is reported in inter-tube areas. Results suggest that physical characteristics of MPs could play a key-role in bioconstruction inclusion processes and raise questions on effective role of sabellariid bioconstructions as a trap for this pollutant in the littoral environment.
... Among marine fouling organisms, invasive species may alter the structure of the endemic community, causing a serious threat to local biodiversity and, sometimes, the decline or extinction of native species, as well as economic loss (Gallardo et al., 2019;Gallardo et al., 2019;Pyšek et al., 2020;Tapkir et al., 2022). Marine litter can also increase the growth of microbes, harmful algae and pathogens (Cyanobacteria, fungi and algae) (Maso et al., 2016;Gayle et al., 2018;Vaksmaa et al., 2021;Pasqualini et al., 2023). ...
Increasing amount of anthropogenic litter in the marine environment has provided an enormous number of substrates for a wide range of marine organisms, thus serving as a potential vector for the transport of fouling organisms. Here, we examined the fouling organisms on different types of stranded litter (plastic, glass, rubber, foam sponge, cloth, metal and wood) on eight beaches along the southeast coast of India. In total, 17 encrusting species belonging to seven phyla (Arthropoda, Bryozoa, Mollusca, Annelida, Cnidaria, Chlorophyta and Fora-minifera) were identified on 367 items, with one invasive species, the mussel Mytella strigata, detected. The most common species associated with marine litter were the cosmopolitan bryozoans Jellyella tuberculata (%O = 31.64 %) and J. eburnea (28.61 %), the barnacle species Lepas anserifera (29.97 %), Amphibalanus amphitrite (22.34 %) and Amphibalanus sp. (14.16 %), and the oyster species Saccostrea cucullata (13.62 %) and Magallana bilineata (5.44 %). We also reported the first records on stranded litter of four species: the gastropod species Pirenella cingulata and Umbonium vestiarium, the foraminiferan Ammonia beccarii, and the oyster M. bilineata. This study is thus the first documentation of marine litter as a vector for species dispersal in India, where the production and consumption of plastic rank among the highest in the world. We also highlight the increasing risk of invasions by non-indigenous organisms attached to debris along the southeast coast of India. Comprehensive monitoring efforts are thus needed to elucidate the type of vectors responsible for the arrival of invasive species in this region. Raising awareness and promoting education are vital components in fostering sustainable solutions to combat plastic pollution in the country and globally.
... In general, diatom communities retrieved from the early plastisphere (1-2 weeks) were primarily composed of Bacillariophyceae, including the genera Navicula, Nitzschia, Cylindrotheca, Achnanthes and Halamphora, while the later communities (6-52 weeks) were dominated by Mediophyceae such as genera Stephanodiscus and Thalassiosira, by Coscinodiscophyceae such as the genus Licmophora and by Fragilariophyceae. Most of these taxa have been found prevalent in plastic debris in Australian coastal waters (Reisser et al. 2014), the Black Sea (Ryabushko et al. 2021), the Northwest Mediterranean Sea (Mas o et al. 2016), the North Atlantic subtropical gyre (Zettler et al. 2013), and the Gulf of Oman (Muthukrishnan et al. 2017(Muthukrishnan et al. , 2019. Interestingly, this study did not detect the Microtabella genus in any of the biofouling and seawater samples, although it has been found to be abundant around Australia (Reisser et al. 2014). ...
Complex microbial communities colonize plastic substrates over time, strongly influencing their fate and potential impacts on marine ecosystems. Among the first colonizers, diatoms play an important role in the development of this 'plastiphere'. We investigated 936 biofouling samples and the factors influencing diatom communities associated with plastic colonization. These factors included geographic location (up to 800 km apart), duration of substrate submersion (1 to 52 weeks), plastics (5 polymer types) and impact of artificial ageing with UV light. Diatom communities colonizing plastic debris were primarily determined by their geographic location and submersion time, with the strongest changes occurring within two weeks of submersion. Several taxa were identified as early colonizers (e.g. Cylindrotheca, Navicula and Nitzschia spp.) with known strong adhesion capabilities. To a lesser extent, plastic-type and UV-ageing significantly affected community composition, with 14 taxa showing substrate-specificity. This study highlights the role of plastics types-state for colonization in the ocean.
... Moreover, diatoms may be an important food source for invertebrate grazers which, in turn, might exert an indirect physical degradation of the materials [37,41]. Other unicellular algae detected were coccolithophores (Figure 3d), presumably belonging to Emiliania huxleyi species [37,42]. The main hypothesis is that coccolithophores would use plastic merely as a physical support [37]. ...
Biodegradable polymers offer a potential solution to marine pollution caused by plastic waste. The marine biofilms that formed on the surfaces of poly(lactide acid) (PLA) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) were studied. Bioplastics were exposed for 6 months to marine conditions in the Mediterranean Sea, and the biofilms that formed on their surfaces were assessed. The presence of specific PLA and PHBV degraders was also studied. PHBV showed extensive areas with microbial accumulations and this led to higher microbial surface densities than PLA (4.75 vs. 5.16 log CFU/cm2). Both polymers’ surfaces showed a wide variety of microbial structures, including bacteria, fungi, unicellular algae and choanoflagellates. A high bacterial diversity was observed, with differences between the two polymers, particularly at the phylum level, with over 70% of bacteria affiliated to three phyla. Differences in metagenome functions were also detected, revealing a higher presence of proteins involved in PHBV biodegradation in PHBV biofilms. Four bacterial isolates belonging to the Proteobacteria class were identified as PHBV degraders, demonstrating the presence of species involved in the biodegradation of this polymer in seawater. No PLA degraders were detected, confirming its low biodegradability in marine environments. This was a pilot study to establish a baseline for further studies aimed at comprehending the marine biodegradation of biopolymers.
... These taxonomic groups contain invasive species that can establish new populations upon arrival in new areas Miralles et al., 2018;Rech et al., 2018aRech et al., , 2018bPóvoa et al., 2022). Plastic litter is also an important vector for invasive algae (Mathieson et al., 2008) but also for invasive and pathogenic microorganisms (Reisser et al., 2014;Maso et al., 2016). These invasive species can negatively affect the invaded environment by altering community structure and ecosystem functions through competition with native species, indirect changes in habitat conditions, and the introduction of pathogens (Gallardo et al., 2019). ...
The introduction and transport of marine invasive species into new environments are a great threat to biodiversity and ecosystem services with potential economic repercussions. There are several routes and mechanisms by which alien species are transported and dispersed in the marine environment (shipping, waterways, and aquaculture). Each year, millions of tons of plastic enter the ocean. The presence of floating marine litter in marine environments provides a substrate for marine organisms and may increase the potential for the transport of alien species. Research on the role of marine litter in the introduction of alien marine species has grown exponentially in recent years. In this study, studies examining the transport and dispersal of alien species by marine litter are reviewed. In this review, we identified 67 alien species associated with marine litter. The most recurrent alien phyla found on marine litter are Arthropoda (29 %), Mollusca (23 %), Bryozoa (19 %), Annelida (7 %) and Cnidaria (5 %). Plastic appears to be more efficient in transporting alien species than by natural means. Their characteristics (buoyancy and persistence) allow them to be widely dispersed throughout all ocean compartments. Thus, plastics may act as a primary vector, carrying organisms to remote areas but can also facilitate the secondary spread of alien species between points of invasion. Despite the growing number of studies on this subject, much work remains to be done to understand the roles of plastics in the introduction of alien species and to develop solutions to mitigate the issue.
... Similar to the ecosystems of Antarctica and deep waters elsewhere, the ecosystems of cold seeps are relatively fragile because of their higher biomass and lower biodiversity. MPs have the potential to act as vectors for pathogenic bacteria and harmful algae (Lyons et al., 2010;Maso et al., 2016;Zettler et al., 2013); thus, MP ingestion may pose a risk to cold-seep organisms. Bacteria carried on MPs may disrupt the inherent symbiotic bacterial community structure in mussels; therefore, the trophic relationship of mussels with symbiotic bacteria may be affected by MPs. ...
Marine microplastic (MP) pollution is a widespread concern; however, to date, MP pollution in chemoautotrophic ecosystems remains largely unknown. This study focuses on the cold seep in the South China Sea. Two dominant species, namely mussel (Gigantidas platifrons) and squat lobster (Shinkaia crosnieri), were collected for examining the MP pollution. MPs were present in both mussels and squat lobsters with abundances of 0.13 ± 0.04 and 0.17 ± 0.06 items/ind., respectively. MPs were mainly fibrous (62.5 %) and transparent (45.8 %). The main polymer type was polyester (54.2 %). About 86.5 MPs/m2 were found inhabiting mussels and squat lobsters-a value comparable to those reported in benthos. This pilot report on MP pollution in cold-seep species provides key information for studies on MP pollution in chemoautotrophic ecosystems and evidence regarding a potential biological MP sink. The role of cold-seep organisms in MP retention and transport in the regional sea merits further attention.
... Moreover, recent research indicates that ecologically and economically important seagrass meadows (Jones et al., 2020;de Smit et al., 2021) and other habitatforming taxa, such as hard corals (de Smit et al., 2021), can trap and accumulate microplastics, while potential seagrass (Dudek et al., 2020) and coral (Goldstein et al., 2014) pathogens have been found on plastics and plastic debris has been associated with an increased likelihood of disease on coral reefs (Lamb et al., 2018). Other taxa that are not generally regarded as invasive, toxic or pathogenic as such, but that can cause nuisance via mucilage events, such as the diatom species Ceratoneis Closterium (Masó et al., 2016), have also been reported as plastisphere members. Alongside the potential toxicity of the plastic polymer itself, or plastic additives and sorbed contaminants (see Pham et al., 2021), plastics' potential to be considered harmful clearly also depends on the interaction with pathogens and non-native taxa present in the environment (see above), especially in polluted environments, such as wastewater effluents and water bodies in the proximity of densely populated urbanised areas (Bastaraud et al., 2020). ...
... The number of studies documenting the dispersal of NNS on marine debris is steadily increasing (e.g. Marques and Breves, 2015;Masó et al., 2016;Carlton et al., 2017;Gündogdu et al., 2017;Miralles et al., 2018;Rech et al., 2018;De-la-Torre et al., 2021). However, a clear understanding of the scale of the problem, and the underlying processes that drive this phenomenon, is lacking. ...
The long-distance transfer of non-native, potentially invasive species via floating marine debris is an increasing threat to biodiversity and conservation efforts. To address the lack of understanding around mechanisms and pathways of species transfer via marine debris, a novel modelling approach was applied to recreate the likely trajectory and source of a large piece of debris fouled by non-native species collected from UK marine waters. This approach applied the Oil Spill Contingency and Response (OSCAR) simulation tool, an adapted oil spill modelling programme, which was informed by a combination of biological trait information for the foulant species, marine debris characteristics and hydrodynamic data. The modelling output suggested an origin in the Western Atlantic, a scenario concurrent with the known distribution of the foulant species. This modelling approach represents a valuable tool with which to determine the origin and trajectory of invasive species transferred via marine debris.
