Cluster diagram - Geospatial analysis: a. Digital elevation model and contoured GIS layer of PADMAC Unit 2013 area of interest. b. Geo-referenced geology mapping. c. Google satellite aerial photography (March 2013 images). d. Close range topographic contours. e. Slope profile across depressions. f. Bing satellite aerial photography (2013 Earthstar Geographic image 14/05/2013). 

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... to identify areas for on-site investigation. The validity of these data was confirmed by a ground-truthing field exercise in December 2012. Work in this designated area continued during March 2013 and June 2013. Lithic surface-scatters/sites were discovered on the hills capped with (knappable) chert that surround and overlook large depressions, which appear to be fluvial in origin and may indeed have been palaeo-channels and palaeo-lakes (geomorphological modelling suggests that this area of Qatar has remained above sea level for at least the past two million years). The initial analysis of the assemblages from the 21 lithic surface-scatters/sites discovered to date (June 2013) indicate that 1 lithic assemblage can be equated to Qatar Neolithic Group B. Of particular importance however, are the other 20 lithic assemblages that certainly predate the Neolithic (technologically and in terms of patination) and appear to include two distinct assemblage types and may represent two relatively contemporary specialised stages of the chaîne opératoire, or indeed two completely different phases of the Palaeolithic. It is envisaged that the next stage of this research will include: the collection of sufficient lithics from each scatters to facilitate rigorous techno-typological analysis; to further investigate particular lithosoils that may well incorporate embedded/stratified lithics; to conduct geomorphological investigations in the depressions - and to discover more lithic surface- scatters/sites with the aim of resolving the long-standing debate on the stone-age history of Qatar. The targeting and analytical approach to the study of lithic surface-scatters/sites by the PADMAC Unit has led to the development of detailed techniques and methodologies for the discovery of this specific archaeology in previously unexplored remote areas (Scott-Jackson & Scott-Jackson 2012). Here we describe and illustrate the results of our active on-going project in the south of Qatar which is currently focused on finding undiscovered lithic surface-scatters/sites and characterizing these stone-tool assemblages. These investigations were undertaken in accordance with the Research Agenda for Qatar (Scott-Jackson & Scott- Jackson 2010) and the project guidelines of the Qatar Museums Authority (QMA 2012). To date (June 2013), we have discovered a total of 21 lithic surface-scatters/sites in the area of investigation (Figure 1). As the objective of the PADMAC Unit 2012/ 2013 fieldwork in Qatar was to identify areas of Palaeolithic potential in the previously unexplored area in the south (Figure 1), the research area was first su bject to ‘virtual exploration’ by using a 4m x4m high resolution display of Google and Bing satellite mapping. For most of the area, a specific Bing tile (2013 Earthstar Geographic Image 14/05/2013) most clearly differentiated surface features. Traversing a grid, west to east and north to south, a complete aerial survey of the area was made using 3D imaging, to identify topographic, geologic and anthropomorphic features. A Geographic Information System (GIS) database was then created in Global Mapper (which allows fast analysis and overlay of Digital Elevation Maps (DEMs), satellite and topographic mapping). Data was also exported to ArcGIS (which can be accessed in the field, via an IPhone4s running ArcGIS Explorer, and incorporates Bing mapping). The coordinates of specific areas of interest were also recorded for further, more detailed desk-based assessment, prior to on – site investigation. For each of the general areas of interest, DEMs and contoured GIS layers (see Figure 3.a.) were analysed to identify for example, particular locations (within each area) on the edges of plateaus with views towards distant landscapes and views down into nearby low-level features. Next, geological mapping (Figure 3.b.) provided by Qatar National Historic Environment Record (QNHER) was scanned and examined to look for areas of limestone and dolomite. Finally, overlaying this geology layer with the detailed Google (Figure 3.c.) and Bing (Figure 3.f.) satellite aerial photography facilitated the identification of chert-capped hills within the targeted research area. Prior to fieldwork, the Bing mapping (given its recent acquisition date of 14 th May 2013) was used to calculated feasible routes to the various areas of high potential, using existing tracks (where possible) and avoiding fences, areas of soft/drifting sand, sand dunes and military installations. These data were exported as tracks to MotionX running on an Iphone4s with an enhanced Bad Elf GPS receiver. This modus operandi permits the most effective use of time in the field. A pilot field survey conducted in the area of interest (Figure 1) during December 2012 confirmed the (desk-based acquired) satellite data. Slope profiles (Figure 3.e.) computed within Global Mapper were verified by the specific topography of the chert-capped hills surrounding a large depression (Figure 3.d. and Figure 2) and the presence of associated lithic surface-scatters/sites. The results of this pilot study and additional data derived from the desk-based assessment provided the rational for a series of intensive targeted field surveys over a wider area (within the designated research area (Figure 1)) during March 2013 and June 2013. More lithic surface-scatters/sites were discovered in a similar context to the 2012 finds (i.e. associated with the presence of chert (knappable raw material) which caps the range of hills surrounding two depressions). Determining the density of the lithic scatters is somewhat problematical as they are generally found amongst extensive covers of naturally shattered rock/chert and sand/dust lithosoil. These specific lithosoil deposits are a target for future investigation as they may well incorporate embedded/stratified lithics. Although the lithic surface-scatters/sites are invariably associated with outcrops of immediately available knappable raw material (chert), the presence of raw material did not necessarily equate to the presence of surface-scatters. Less than 25% of the investigated outcrops incorporated lithic surface-scatters/sites. Whether this actually reflects some form of differential land use strategy by prehistoric people in Qatar, is subject to detailed future analysis. Certainly, in the UAE, Oman and the UK we have observed that Palaeolithic knapping sites tend to be associated with readily available knappable raw material and that they generally occupy the edges of high plateaus/ridges/hills, often with long distance views, but are also ideally positioned to observe the activities of game and/or other people, at low levels, in the passes, wadis/river valleys or other lacustrine features (Scott-Jackson & Scott- Jackson 2009; Scott-Jackson & Scott-Jackson 2013). The research methodology described here, which combines detailed multi-method desk-based assessment with intensive targeted fieldwork, allows the PADMAC Unit to identify areas with Palaeolithic potential but where no apparent evidence of Palaeolithic occupation exists. As such, it also provides a basis for the analysis of geomorphic processes implicated in the preservation of lithic surface-scatters/sites and a means to explore prehistoric peoples ’ use of the landscape as a whole. The initial analysis of the 21 lithic assemblages newly discovered by the PADMAC Unit in the south of Qatar (Figure 1) reveals that one assemblage is Neolithic but the other 20 assemblages predate the Neolithic. The one assemblage (Site 220313.32.) that had come from an entirely different topographic context to the other 20 assemblages (i.e. being found on a small knoll within the main depression as opposed to the surrounding hill tops) is technologically similar in many respects to the Qatar Neolithic Group B as defined by Kapel (1967). This assemblage included three blade cores (one crested) (Figure 4.c.) showing signs of soft hammer production and a small hammerstone made from quartz. From an unrelated area (Area 220313.25) a small green (possibly serpentinite) cobble was recovered, seemingly used as a hammerstone (but then shattered, possibly in use). This was refitted on site. Interestingly, quartz nodules and nodules of a green serpentinite-like material are to be found in the (3-8 million year old) fluvial gravel deposits of the Hofuf Formation ~10 km to the north of Site 220313.32 and Area 220313.25. Of particular importance however, are the other 20 lithic assemblages from the chert-capped hills surrounding the depressions (Figure 2) which certainly predate the Neolithic (both technologically and in terms of patination) and which are characterized by flakes with prominent bulbs and large unprepared striking platforms suggesting hard hammer production. They also appear to represent two distinct assemblage types, the first comprising large, heavily struck coarse cores (Figure 4.d.) and bifaces (Figure 4.a. and Figure 4.b.) and the second, more finely worked, smaller flakes (Figure 4.e. and Figure 4.f. ) including unidirectional and centripetal Levallois-like technology (with refits, but, as yet, no evidence of platform faceting). These distinct assemblages may represent two, relatively contemporary, specialised stages of the chaîne opératoire or two completely different phases of the Palaeolithic. This question may be resolved when the PADMAC Unit has completed additional techno-typological analysis of the assemblages later this year. It is also hoped that this intended analysis may go some way to resolving the long-standing debate over the chronological grouping in Kapel’s (1967) ‘Atlas of the Stone Age Cultures of Qatar’ . The migration in and out of Qatar by prehistoric people would have been governed by global climate change and tectonic activity which effectively raised or lowered sea levels in the Arabian Gulf (Jameson & Strohmenger 2012). In addition, environmental change in Arabia has oscillated ...