City map of Carnuntum . Damaged structures were excavated from eight locations distributed over the entire settlement ( bullets 1 to 8 ). Descriptions of the damaged

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The earthquake of Carnuntum in the fourth century A.D. - Archaeological results, seismologic scenario and seismotectonic implications for the Vienna Basin fault, Austria

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Oct 2006

Excavations in the former Roman provincial capital of Pannonia Superior, Carnuntum, 40km east of Vienna revealed damaged masonry structures from many parts of the ancient settlements. A compilation of structurally damaged buildings has formerly been given by Kandler (Acta Archaeol Acad Sci Hung, 41:313–336, 1989), who related damage to an earthquak...

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... first appears during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 B.C. – 14 A.D. ) in 6 A.D. when a Roman army under the command of Tiberius established a winter camp there during a campaign against the Germanic tribe of the Marcomanni as the Roman historian Velleius Paterculus reports in his Res gestae . The location of that camp, however, is unknown. The earliest remains of Roman military building activity to date are first attested for the period of Claudius (41 – 54 A.D. ). In 50 A.D. the legionary camp ( castra legionis ) was founded and garrisoned by the 15th legion. Under the Flavian emperors, in the second half of the first century A.D. , settlement activity started in the canabae legionis around the legionary camp as well as in the civil-town (Figure 3). After dividing Pannonia into two parts ( Pannonia superior and inferior ) under Trajan (98 – 117 A.D. ) Carnuntum became the residence of the governor of the province of Pannonia superior . Hadrian (117 – 138 A.D. ) elevated the civil-settlement of Carnuntum to a municipium with a large forum (66×145 m) in its center. The peaceful development of the settlement was interrupted in the 60s of the second century A.D. , when the Germanic tribes of the Marcomanni and Quadi crossed the Danube and advanced to northern Italy. The Roman counter-offensive was commanded by Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161 – 180 A.D. ) himself who for this occasion made Carnuntum his main residence for three years. In 170 A.D. the Roman army repulsed the enemies beyond the border. During the following 10 years the Romans attacked the Germanic tribes in their own country. In contrast to the predominant opinion in former research there is no safe archaeological proof of repeated destructions by the Marcomanni and Quadi at Carnuntum . In 193 A.D. the Pannonian troops acclaimed L. Septimius Severus emperor. At the time he was residing in Carnuntum as a governor. His reign, ending in 211, marks a heyday for the provinces at the border of the Roman Empire. Carnuntum received the honorary title of a Colonia . On the occasion of the celebration of 10 year ’ s reign in 202 Septimius Severus visited Pannonia and its capital Carnuntum . Under the reign of the Severian emperors the ‘ Große Therme ’ (bathhouse) in the north of the forum was built. All the roads of the town were paved with limestone. In the canabae legionis a temple-area in honor of the gods of the Syrian town of Heliopolis (now Baalbek) and a temple of the Egyptian god Sarapis were erected. During the reign of the Severan emperors Carnuntum extended to an area of about 2.5 km 2 . At about the middle of the third century under Gallienus (253 – 268 A.D. ) the Pannonian army acclaimed a certain Regalianus emperor, who was murdered a short time after by his own troops. Most of the known coins of Regalianus and his wife Sulpicia Dryantilla were found in Carnuntum . In 308 A.D. a conference of the Roman emperors under the leadership of the retired emperor Diocletian (284 – 305 A.D. ) took place at Carnuntum , which was designed to solve political problems of the empire such as the succession to the throne of the Roman emperors. As a visible memorial to this event a big altar dedicated by the emperors to the oriental god Mithras is preserved. For the middle of the fourth century archaeological evidence shows that Carnuntum was severely affected by a damaging event with destroyed build- ings found in all parts of the settlement. Many of these buildings were not rebuilt after the event. Pieces of architectural decoration and altars were reused in some new erected buildings, as for instance in the “ Heidentor, ” a triumphal arch, which was built at the end of the 50s by emperor Constantius II (337 – 361 A. D. ) after a victory against the Quadi and Sarmati . For the period of Valentinian (364 – 375 A.D. ) extensive reconstruction activity is confirmed especially in the legionary camp while in the canabae large areas of the settlement were abandoned. The last known building activity in Carnuntum can be dated to the turn of the fifth century A.D . No younger urban settlements are known. The major medieval settlements are located off the former Roman center. The archaeological place is located close to the rural villages of Bad Deutsch Altenburg and Petronell (Figure 3). Until now about 10% of Carnuntum are excavated. Archaeological excavations in Carnuntum resolved several damaged masonry buildings with characteristic types of damage, which previously have been attributed to earthquake destruction (Table 1; Figure 3; Kandler 1989; Kandler et al. 2006). Notably all types of damage refer to excavated buildings, as the archaeological site does not include upstanding monuments or ruins except for the mentioned triumphal arch. (1) The most frequent type of damage refers to walls, which were separated from traverse walls and broke off from their fundaments along horizontal lines close to the ground. The walls toppled and fell aside as coherent structures conserving their original height and the structure of their stonework including windows, archways and doors. Such walls were recorded from a total of eight buildings distributed over the ancient Carnuntum in the legionary camp (Table 1; Figure 3), the surrounding civil town and the canabae legionis (Kandler 1989). Similar toppled walls were recovered from two isolated farms ( villae rusticae ) at Bruckneudorf (10 km south of Carnuntum; Heiling 1995) and Stupava (15 km NNE of Carnuntum ; Staník and Tur č an 2001; Figure ...

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... largest wall recovered so far was part of a building in the eastern district of the canabae legionis with a total length of 19 m and a former height of about 4 m (Table 1, no. 4; Figure 3, location 4; Kandler 1989; Kandler et al. 2006). The structure of the wall, which broke off from its foundation along a horizontal line some 20 cm above the former ground level, is conserved over the whole length. Archaeological recovery shows a fully intact foundation and the toppled wall lying beside of it. Brickstones still are in place while the interstitial mortar is weathered off (Figures 4b and 5a). The excavated remains show, that the wall was separated from the transverse walls and from a supporting pillar located at the corner of the one-story high building (Figure 4). The pillar remained intact after the collapse of the wall. From the temple district of the canabae legionis two excavated walls are damaged in same style with horizontal fractures shortly above the ground (Table 1, no. 6; Figure 3, location 5; Figure 5). Other toppled walls have been recovered in the area of the auxiliary camp (Figure 3, location 7, the wall includes the arch of a door; Stiglitz and Jilek 1997), in the district of the temple for Jupiter Optimus Maximus at the mountain ...

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... Table 1 summarizes the archaeologically derived constraints for the constructional age of the afflicted buildings and the inferred time of damage. Dating relies on the well-established history of the city evolution and construction periods, on pottery dating (e.g., Grünewald 1974), and rare findings of coins in strata overlying the level of the toppled walls (Kandler 1980; see also references in Table 1). Coins and inscriptions found in the floor level and walls overlying the destroyed wall of a military barrack (Table 1, no. 1) date its destruction prior to the major reconstruction period under Valentinian I in 375 A.D. (Kandler et al. 2006). Destruction of the villa rustica at Bruckneudorf (Table 1, no. 10) occurred prior to a construction period of the villa after about 350 A.D. , which is dated by coin findings. Archaeological evidence shows that part of the damaged buildings was not rebuilt. Damage in the eastern part of the canabae legionis (Table 1, nos. 4 – 6) is thought to cause the abandonment of this part of the settlement, which is documented for the second half of the fourth century. A period of extensive reconstruction in the legionary camp of Carnuntum , however, is confirmed for the following decades under the reign of Valentinian between 364 and 375 A.D . New buildings of the period after the middle of the fourth century are characterized by the use of pieces of architectural decoration and altars. Such recycling of material from older buildings and sanctuaries is, for instance, documented for a triumphal arch ( “ Heidentor ” ), which was built at the end of the 50s by emperor Constantius II (337 – 361 A.D. ) following a victory against the Quadi and Sarmati (Jobst 2001). This arch today forms the only standing remain of the ancient settlement (Figure 3). The age of the monument and the use of stones, which were probably quarried from destroyed buildings and sanctuaries, could date the destructive event as prior to 355 A.D . Excavations of the sanctuary of Jupiter Heliopolitanus confirm such quarrying (Table 1, no. 6; Figure 3, location 6; Kandler 2003). It should, however, be noted that the use of decorations and altars could also be related to the closure of sanctuaries decreed by the emperor in 354 A.D. (Jobst 2001). In sum, the independently derived chronologi- cal constraints for toppled walls from Carnuntum and Bruckneudorf all point to destruction around the middle of the fourth century A.D ...

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... (Table 1, no. 3; Figure 3, location 3; Von Groller-Mildensee 1900; Jobst 1978), and in a bath in the civil town (Table 1, no. 2; Figure 3, location 2; Swoboda 1964; Kandler 1989, 317 f. and Figure 7 therein). (2) Other types of structural failure refer to findings of broken and displaced foundations (Table 1, no.7). Vertical displacements were previously related to ground subsidence or static failure and inappropriate construction. None of the damaged fundaments is connected to toppled walls. In one case a horizontally displaced foundation gave rise to infer an earthquake as the cause of damage. This interpretation, however, seems unlikely as no similar failure was found along the lateral contin- uation of the inferred surface fracture. It should be noted that none of the foundations of the excavated toppled walls showed any failure excluding inappropriate engineering or ground subsidence as reasons for the toppling. The first considerations of earthquakes as reasons for destructions in Carnuntum arose from tumbled monolithic monuments and altars in the Doli- chenum (Table 1, no. 8; Figure 3, location 8; Dell 1893) who noted that “ the regular arrange- ment of altars and postaments could possibly lead to conclude that an earthquake caused ...

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... the further discussion of the seismologic scenario a classification of the severity of ground shaking in the fourth century is attempted, which goes beyond simple compilations and descriptions of the damage structures. The approach is based on the style and degree of observed damage and utilizes macroseismic intensity based on an empirical scale of damage as a mean for measuring ground shaking. We try to apply the last version of the macroseismic scale EMS-98 (Grünthal 1998) on this historic event keeping in mind that both the type and the number of data are scarce and non- precise compared with data of recent earthquakes. The most severe limitations for excavated structures obvi- ously are the facts that (1) low degrees of damage cannot be assessed and only collapsed structures have a potential to be preserved and identified, and (2) quan- titative evaluations of the frequency of damage usually cannot be applied. For historic events intensities generally can only be estimated from written sources (if available) or from remains of buildings, which preserved damage. For Carnuntum moderate degrees of damage and frightening effects on people cannot be included in intensity assessments, as written reports are missing. We argue that introducing a new macroseismic scale for such historic events (e.g., Gutdeutsch and Hammerl 1999) does not make sense when trying to use the archaeological data to constrain regional seismicity or the seismic behaviour of active faults, as the historical data should be integrated with modern ones. In the course of the last century considerable improvements of macroseismic scales were added taking into account the type and the quality of buildings, and semi-quantitative assessments of the percentages of damaged structures (Grünthal 1998). The damage classification for masonry buildings is per- formed using five degrees of damage, starting from slight to heavy damage, and complete collapse of buildings. As discussed above archaeological excavations can only provide evidence on partial or complete collapse (grade 5), and some hints on severe damage (grade 4 of the classification). Generally, the toppled walls identified in Carnuntum are classified as damage grade 5. The quality of the buildings is taken under consid- eration using three different vulnerability classes for stone buildings. The EMS-98 distinguishes between masonry structures of (a) rubble stone/fieldstone with poor quality mortar as class A. In the excavation campaigns in Carnuntum no adobe houses were investigated in detail. (b) Simple stone constructions, where the stones have undergone some dressing prior to use arranged in a way that strength of the structure is improved are treated as class B. (c) Reinforced and grouted masonry corresponding to class C. Very little is known about the vulnerability of Roman structures. Generally the walls of the buildings in Carnuntum were composed of hewn angular blocks of Tertiary and Mesozoic limestone interconnected by lime mortar and covered by roughcast. The stones show regular arrangements comparable to brick walls (Figures 4 and 5). Opus cementitium , block structures and reinforcements are not known from the place. The recovered toppled walls had thicknesses between 0.5 and 1.2 m and belonged to long-lived well-crafted buildings being used for one to two centuries (Table 1). The assessment of the quality of the mortar is not straight forward due to the decay of the remains prior to unearthing. As a conservative guess the highest vulnerability class A is assumed for the toppled walls, although the quality of the structures may be closer to class B. Definition of the quantities in the EMS-98 scale requires a semi-quantitative estimate of the percentage of damaged houses. Intensity assignments from single collapses are not feasible. For the archaeological site these numbers are difficult to estimate and the problem is approached by regarding the excavated remains as a random sample out of the whole number of buildings. Until now approximately 10% of the municipal area of Carnuntum was excavated in various campaigns during the last century, which corresponds to a roughly estimated number of 150 buildings. However, the number of excavated buildings, which could be used for the semi-quantitative assessment of damage frequency, is much smaller. First, toppled walls, which are considered the most distinctive damage, are only conserved under favourable circumstances in shallow pits and under thick cover protecting the remains from ancient and modern destruction, e.g., by ploughing. Second, only the modern archaeological techniques used in the last two or three decades identified the described type of damage. Such techniques were only applied to a part of the excavated area. The listed favourable conditions of preservation and excavation only apply to a small, but unquantified portion of the archaeologically recovered buildings of Carnuntum . For this random sample toppled walls testify damage of grade 5 for seven buildings leading to conclude that damage of the described style affected “ many buildings ” rather than only “ few buildings ” in the sense of EMS-98 ( “ few ” in the sense of EMS-98 means less than about 15%). The assumption of “ few buildings ” seems unlikely as it implies that the seven documented cases of destruction form a major part of the total number of destroyed buildings among the excavated houses. Destroyed masonry has been excavated from places spread over the entire area of the former Roman town, i.e., a distance of c. 5 km (Figure 3). The different sites show a similar degree of destruction giving rise to the attempt of evaluating the local intensity. It is, however, an unproved assumption that all destructions are the consequence of only one earthquake and not the result of several events. According to the discussed vulnerability assessment (A or A to B) and the estimated percentage of damaged houses ( “ many ” rather than “ few ” ) the most likely macroseismic intensity is 9 1 with an uncertainty of plus/minus one degree (Table 2). Uncertainty derives from a minimum estimated intensity of 8 (destruction of few buildings of vulnerability class A), and a maximum estimated intensity of 10 (destruction of many, but not most, buildings of vulnerability class B). As the earthquakes in this inferred intensity range are generally of a magnitude, where no surface offset is observed, and by the described mode of failure we assume that the destructions are as a consequence of seismic waves. The singular evidence of a possible surface fracture (Table 1, no. 7) is not regarded stringent. The result of the intensity assessment is more or less a single intensity data point for the ancient city of Carnuntum . We refrain from assessing intensity of the damage of the other facilities in Stupava (Slovakia) and Bruckneudorf (Lower Austria; Table 1, nos. 9 and 10) as for both sites only data from singular buildings is ...

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... 5 Sketch map of the excavated building 82 forming part of an agricultural facility at location 4 (Figure 3) indicating the position of the tumbled wall. The wall includes a window opening close to its northern end. By collapse it was separated from a supporting pillar at the southern corner of the building, which remained intact after damage (from Kandler 1989). ...

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Seismicity of the Northwestern Region of Libya: An Example of Continental Seismicity

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Nov 2006

Libya is situated on the Mediterranean foreland of the African Shield; its seismicity and tectonics reflect the geological history of the north African craton. Libya is not considered a highly active seismic region (Gutenberg and Richter 1965). However, several earthquakes of magnitude > 6.0 have occurred in Libya during the past century. A number...

Segmented seismicity of the M w 6.2 Baladeh earthquake sequence (Alborz Mountains, Iran) revealed from regional moment tensors

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Jul 2013

The M w 6.2 Baladeh earthquake occurred on 28 May 2004 in the Alborz Mountains, northern Iran. This earthquake was the first strong shock in this intracontinental orogen for which digital regional broadband data are available. The Baladeh event provides a rare opportunity to study fault geometry and ongoing deformation processes using modern seismo...

Importance of the archaeoseismological study for earthquake geology in South Korea

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Apr 2020

On the magnitude and possible return period of the historical earthquake in ancient Savaria, 455 AD (Szombathely, West Hungary)

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Dec 2019

Péter Varga

In 455 AD a strong, presumably M ≥ 6.0, earthquake occurred in or near the ancient town Savaria, the present Szombathely, West Hungary. According to the certainly incomplete earthquake catalogue, since then no similar significant seismic event occurred during the last 1500 years in this area which is currently considered inactive. Conclusions of this study are: (1) According to contemporary written historical sources ( Annales Ravennates and biographical information about the life of Saint Severinus), the earthquake that destroyed Savaria and occurred in 455 AD had a magnitude of M ≥ 6.0. (2) In order to support the aforementioned magnitude value calculations were necessary. As the historical seismicity of the area is not known sufficiently an independent geodynamical approach – in parallel to the Gutenberg-Richter relationship – was used to estimate the return interval of earthquakes M ≥ 6. It was found in both cases that in the Szombathely region the recurrence time of earthquakes M6 and M6.5 is 1000 and 3000 years. Consequently, the earthquake activity of the Szombathely region is significantly lower than that of the Pannonian Basin in general.

Seismically-triggered soft-sediment deformation structures close to a major strike-slip fault system in the Eastern Alps (Hirlatz cave, Austria)

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Mar 2018
J STRUCT GEOL

We investigate episodic soft-sediment deformation structures cross-cut by normal faults preserved in unlithified finely laminated calcite rich sediments in the Hirlatz cave in the Northern Calcareous Alps (Austria). These sediments comprise varve-like alternations of brighter carbonate/quartz rich layers, and darker clay mineral rich layers. The deformed sediments contain abundant millimeter to centimeter-scale soft-sediment structures (load casts, ball-and-pillow structures), sheet slumps (thrust faults and folds), erosive channels filled with slides and chaotic slumps. After deposition and soft-sediment deformation normal faults developed within the entire sedimentary succession, an event that probably correlates with an offset of c. 10 cm of the passage wall above the outcrop. Our major conclusions are: (i) The sediments have a glacial origin and were deposited in the Hirlatz cave under phreatic fluvio-lacustrine conditions. The deposition and the soft-sediment deformation occurred most likely during the last glaciation (i.e. around 25 ka ago); (ii) The liquefaction and formation of the soft-sediment structures in water-saturated stratified layers was triggered by episodic seismic events; (iii) The internally deformed sediments were later displaced by normal faults; (iv) A possible source for the seismic events is the active sinistral Salzach-Ennstal-Mariazeller-Puchberger (SEMP) strike-slip fault which is located about 10 km south of the outcrop and plays a major role in accommodating the extrusion of the Eastern Alps towards the Pannonian Basin. To our knowledge, the described structures are the first report of liquefaction and seismically induced soft-sediment deformations in Quaternary sediments in the Eastern Alps.

Estimating the upper limit of prehistoric peak ground acceleration using an in situ, intact and vulnerable stalagmite from Plavecká priepast cave (Detrekői-zsomboly), Little Carpathians, Slovakia—first results

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Sep 2017
J SEISMOL

Earthquakes hit urban centres in Europe infrequently, but occasionally with disastrous effects. Obtaining an unbiased view of seismic hazard (and risk) is therefore very important. In principle, the best way to test probabilistic seismic hazard assessments (PSHAs) is to compare them with observations that are entirely independent of the procedure used to produce PSHA models. Arguably, the most valuable information in this context should be information on long-term hazard, namely maximum intensities (or magnitudes) occurring over time intervals that are at least as long as a seismic cycle. The new observations can provide information of maximum intensity (or magnitude) for long timescale as an input data for PSHA studies as well. Long-term information can be gained from intact stalagmites in natural caves. These formations survived all earthquakes that have occurred over thousands of years, depending on the age of the stalagmite. Their ‘survival’ requires that the horizontal ground acceleration (HGA) has never exceeded a certain critical value within that time period. Here, we present such a stalagmite-based case study from the Little Carpathians of Slovakia. A specially shaped, intact and vulnerable stalagmite in the Plavecká priepast cave was examined in 2013. This stalagmite is suitable for estimating the upper limit of horizontal peak ground acceleration generated by prehistoric earthquakes. The critical HGA values as a function of time going back into the past determined from the stalagmite that we investigated are presented. For example, at the time of Jókő event (1906), the critical HGA value cannot have been higher than 1 and 1.3 m/s² at the time of the assumed Carnuntum event (∼340 AD), and 3000 years ago, it must have been lower than 1.7 m/s². We claimed that the effect of Jókő earthquake (1906) on the location of the Plavecká priepast cave is consistent with the critical HGA value provided by the stalagmite we investigated.

Implications from palaeoseismological investigations at the Markgrafneusiedl Fault (Vienna Basin, Austria) for seismic hazard assessment

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May 2017

Including faults into seismic hazard assessment depends strongly on their level of seismic activity. Intraplate regions are characterized by low seismicity, so that the evaluation of existing earthquake catalogues does not necessarily reveal all active faults that contribute to seismic hazard. In the Vienna Basin (Austria), moderate historical seismicity (Imax/Mmax = 8/5.2) concentrates along the left-lateral strike-slip Vienna Basin Transfer Fault (VBTF). In contrast, several normal faults branching out of the VBTF show neither historical nor instrumental earthquake records, although geomorphological data indicate Quaternary displacement along those faults. Here, we present a palaeoseismological dataset of three trenches crossing one of these splay faults, the Markgrafneusiedl Fault (MF), in order to evaluate the seismic potential of the fault. Comparing the observations of the different trenches, we found evidence for 5–6 major surface-breaking earthquakes during the last 120 ka, with the youngest event occurring at around ~ 14 ka before present. The inferred surface displacements lead to magnitude estimates ranging between M = 6.2 ± 0.3 and M = 6.8 ± 0.1. Data can be interpreted by two possible event lines, with event line 1 showing more regular recurrence intervals of about 20–25 ka between the earthquakes with M ≥ 6.5, and event line 2 indicating that such earthquakes cluster in two time intervals in the last 120 ka. Event line 2 appears more plausible. Trench observations also show that structural and sedimentological records of strong earthquakes with small surface offset have only low conservation potential. Vertical slip rates of 0.03–0.04 mm/a derived from the trenches compare well to geomorphically derived slip rates of 0.015–0.085 mm/a. Magnitude estimates from fault dimensions suggest that the largest earthquakes observed in the trenches activated the entire fault surface of the MF including the basal detachment that links the normal fault with the VBTF. The most important implications of these paleoseismological results for seismic hazard assessment are that: (1) The MF needs to be considered as a seismic source irrespective of the fact that it did not release historical earthquakes. (2) The maximum credible earthquakes in the Vienna Basin should be considered to be about M = 7.0. (3) The MF is kinematically and geologically equivalent to a number of other splay faults of the VBTF. It must be assumed that these faults are potential sources of large earthquakes as well. The frequency of strong earthquakes near Vienna is therefore expected to be significantly higher than the earthquake frequency reconstructed for the MF.

Constraints on long-term seismic hazard from vulnerable stalagmite in Plavecká priepast' cave, Slovakia

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Jan 2017

A specially shaped (candlestick shape, high, slim and more or less cylindrical), intact and vulnerable stalagmite (IVSTM) in the Plavecká priepast' cave has been examined. This IVSTM is suitable for estimating the upper limit for horizontal peak ground acceleration (HPGA) generated by prehistoric and paleoearthquakes. These long-term information about size of earthquakes can be important taking into account that historical earthquake catalogues are only 1-2 thousand years long in Central Europe. The method of our investigation is: - the density, Young's modulus and tensile failure stress of broken stalagmite samples (lying at the same hall of the Plavecká priepast' cave, as the stalagmite we investigated) have been measured in mechanical laboratory; - the height and the diameters of the IVSTM have been determined in situ, and its vibration was measured in the cave as well; - theoretical calculations, based on in situ measurements, produce the value of horizontal ground acceleration resulting in failure, as well as the theoretical natural frequency and harmonic oscillations of the IVSTM; - core samples were taken from a column dripstone standing in the same hall as the investigated stalagmite to obtain the age of the stalagmite, by Multi Collector - Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry analysis (MC-ICP MS). The HPGA values as a function of time going backward into the past determined from the stalagmite we investigated were presented on a figure. The figure shows that for example at the time of Jóko event the HPGA value could not be higher than 1.02 m/s², and at the time of the assumed Carnuntum event (∼340 A.D.) it could not be higher than 1.34 m/s². This technique can yield important new constraints on seismic hazard as well, as geological structures close to Plavecka priepast' cave did not generate strong paleoearthquakes in the last few thousand years, which would have produced horizontal ground acceleration larger than the upper acceleration threshold that we determine from the IVSTM. These results have to be taken into account, when calculating the seismic potential of faults near to the Plavecka priepast' cave as well as faults in Vienna basin (Markgrafneusiedler and Lassee faults). A particular importance of this study results from the seismic hazard of two close-by capitals Vienna and Bratislava.

Vysvetlivky ku geologickej mape Záhorskej nížiny 1 : 50 000. In Slovak, english resumé.

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Jan 2012

Summary: The Záhorská nížina Lowland forms the westernmost region of Slovakia. Its western border is limited by the border with the Czech Republic and Austria. The eastern frontier passes from the western flanks of the Malé Karpaty Mts. from the Devín – urban part of Bratislava – to the Dolný mlyn located in the southwest of the municipality Hradište pod Vrátnom. The northern boundary stretches from the Dolný mlyn through the town of Senica, municipalities of Smolinské and Dojč, north of the town of Kúty and towards the River Morava. The territory of the regional geological map at scale 1 : 50 000, includes the Záhorská nížina Lowland in the meaning of the regional-geological classification of the Western Carpathians (Vass et al., 1988a) with the Vienna Basin and Senica and the Záhorie-Lower Morava part and the western flanks of the Malé Karpaty Mts. The Senica part of the Vienna Basin represents the older structural unit and is considered to be a regional subunit in the NE part of the Basin. In its geological setting the Early Miocene sediments are involved, mainly. In a small scale the Middle Miocene sediments are present. The Záhorie-Lower Morava part is an younger structural unit and constitutes the remaining part of the Basin, which is formed by the Miocene and Pliocene deposits of marine and terrestrial origin. The Malé Karpaty Mts. form a horst, which is limited to the Vienna Basin by the Litava-Láb faults, which are a continuation of seismoactive fault system of Mur – Mürz – Leitha of the Eastern Alps. Abstrakt Na území regiónu Záhorská nížina sa rozprestiera západný okraj Malých Karpát a slovenská časť Viedenskej panvy. Na geologickej stavbe okrajovej časti Malých Karpát sa podieľa tatrikum, fatrikum a hronikum a v malej miere paleogénne sedimenty. Na území Viedenskej panvy sa nachádzajú neogénne sedimenty a v prevažnej miere sedimenty kvartérneho veku. Tatrikum Malých Karpát sa člení na celú sústavu čiastkových príkrovových jednotiek. Na zmapovanom území sa nachádza borinská jednotka a veľká alochtónna jednotka – bratislavský príkrov. Borinská jednotka vystupuje na sz. svahoch a predhorí Malých Karpát od Devínskej Novej Vsi až po obec Pernek. Na povrchu sú horniny borinskej jednotky zložené výlučne z usadenín jurského veku, staršie, triasové horniny sa vyskytujú len vo forme olistolitov. Bratislavský príkrov je frontálna, výrazne alochtónna časť tatrika s. s. Zaberá plošne najväčšiu časť Malých Karpát. Je zložený z veľmi pestrých komplexov tak predalpínskeho fundamentu, ako aj jeho mezozoického sedimentárneho pokryvu. Kryštalinikum budujú staropaleozoické metamorfované horniny a karbónske granitoidné horniny bratislavského masívu. Mezozoické sedimentárne sledy sú v bratislavskom príkrove zachované na viacerých, sčasti oddelených miestach, pričom sa navzájom dosť líšia. Predriftové permsko-triasové komplexy boli počas spodnojurského riftingu hlboko, miestami až úplne (kuchynská jednotka) erodované, a preto sú zachované len rudimentárne. Jursko-spodnokriedové sledy vystupujú na sz. periférii bratislavského fundamentu. Zaraďujeme ich do štyroch samostatných jednotiek, z ktorých sa na zmapovanom území nachádzajú len dve, a to devínska a kuchynská jednotka. Fatrikum je reprezentované vysockým príkrovom, ktorý je typickým reprezentantom spodnejších a externejších čiastkových príkrovových jednotiek fatrika. Hronikum na území regiónu zastupujú dva čiastkové príkrovy – veterlínsky a považský. Stratigrafický rozsah veterlínskeho príkrovu zodpovedá vrchnému karbónu až vrchnému karnu. Mladopaleozoická klasticko-vulkanická sukcesia patrí do ipoltickej skupiny. Bazálne spodnotriasové členy sú reprezentované klastickými usadeninami benkovského a šuňavského súvrstvia. Horniny aniského veku pozostávajú z platformových vápencov a dolomitov. V ich nadloží sú panvové karbonáty. Terminálnu časť tvoria rifové sedimenty. V tektonickom nadloží veterlínskeho príkrovu leží čiastkový považský príkrov, zložený z havranickej a jablonickej kryhy. Litostratigrafický rozsah príkrovu zodpovedá spodnému triasu až najvyššiemu triasu – rétu. Paleogénne sedimenty kolmatujú paleoalpínsku tektonickú stavbu Malých Karpát. Zastupujú ich klastické sedimenty malokarpatskej skupiny, reprezentované plytkomorskými litofáciami súvrstvia Jelenej hory a hemipelagickými sedimentmi bukovského a hrabníckeho súvrstvia. Neogénne sedimenty sa v regióne vyskytujú na povrchu najmä pri západnom okraji Malých Karpát. V severnej časti regiónu patrí k najstarším sedimentom podbrančský zlepenec egenburského veku reprezentujúci plytkomorské okrajové sedimenty. V malej miere sú na študovanom území zastúpené usadeniny planinského súvrstvia otnansko-spodnokarpatského veku. Rozsiahle plochy severného okraja Malých Karpát sú pokryté hruboklastickými sedimentmi jablonických zlepencov karpatského veku. V menšej miere sa vyskytujú usadeniny prietržských vrstiev a panvové sedimenty lakšárskeho súvrstvia spodnokarpatského veku. V južnej časti regiónu na okraji Malých Karpát sa nachádzajú terestrické aj morské sedimenty. K najstarším patria kontinentálne brekcie pravdepodobne spodnobádenského veku stmelené sintrom nachádzajúce sa na severných svahoch Devínskej Kobyly. Najväčšie plošné rozšírenie majú terestrické usadeniny devínskonovoveského súvrstvia strednobádenského veku. Uvedené súvrstvie bolo rozčlenené na viacero litofácií (brekcií, štrkov, pieskov a ílov). V devínskonovoveskom súvrství sa po prvýkrát zaznamenal výskyt tufov s odtlačkami listov. V jeho nadloží sa zistili denudačné zvyšky plytkomorských sedimentov stupavských vrstiev strednobádenského veku. Vo výplni Viedenskej panvy sa nachádzajú pelitické sedimenty lužického súvrstvia egenbursko-otnanského veku. V ich nadloží v severnej časti panvy sa vyskytujú hlbokomorské sedimenty lakšárskeho súvrstvia. Na ne nasadajú vrchnokarpatské sedimenty závodského súvrstvia, ktoré sedimentovalo v plytkovodnom brakickom až sladkovodnom prostredí. Na juhu slovenskej časti Viedenskej panvy sa v období vrchného karpatu usadzovali deltové sedimenty lábskych vrstiev. Na súvrstvia karpatského veku v období spodného bádenu transgredovali hruboklastické sedimenty kútskych vrstiev, ktoré smerom do nadložia prechádzajú do panvových fácií lanžhotského súvrstvia spodnobádenského veku. V ich nadloží sa vyskytujú pestro sfarbené (hruboklastické aj pelitické) sedimenty žižkovských vrstiev lagunárneho až plytkomorského pôvodu, ktoré prechádzajú do panvových sedimentov jakubovského súvrstvia. Vrchnobádenské morské sedimenty studienčanského súvrstvia reprezentujú piesky, pieskovce a litotamniové vápence sandberských vrstiev a panvové pelitické usadeniny. Sedimenty sarmatského veku zastupuje holíčske a skalické súvrstvie. Panónske sedimenty reprezentuje bzenecké, čárske a gbelské súvrstvie. Sedimenty vznikli v brakickom jazernom, deltovom a fluviálnom prostredí. Neogénnu sedimentáciu zakončujú hruboklastické sedimenty brodského a sološnického súvrstvia pliocénneho veku, ktoré sa vyskytujú len v kútskej a zohorsko-plaveckej depresii. Kvartérne sedimenty, prevažne vo veľkej hrúbke, pokrývajú takmer celé územie regiónu. Na ich geologickej stavbe sa v rôznej miere podieľajú takmer všetky základné genetické typy terestrických uloženín. Objemovo je prevažná časť sedimentov sústredená na území Borskej nížiny a priľahlej časti Chvojnickej pahorkatiny. Zo širokej škály vyvinutých a zachovaných genetických typov majú z hľadiska hrúbky, plošného rozsahu a špecifickosti vývoja dominantné postavenie akumulácie eolických pieskov. Tvoria významný a pre Borskú nížinu charakteristický kvartérny a reliéfotvorný prvok. Naviate piesky tvoria viaceré ucelené pásma Záhorských pláňav, a najmä Boru. Tvoria jednak plošne rozsiahle dunové komplexy spojené do paralelnej sústavy mohutných pieskových valov, ale vyskytujú sa aj ako malé lokálne presypy a ploché akumulácie. Eolické piesky sú uložené jednak na predkvartérnom neogénnom podloží, jednak na piesčitých štrkoch a pieskoch fluviálnych terás aj dnovej akumulácie Moravy, Myjavy a ich väčších prítokov a čiastočne aj na proluviálnych akumuláciách distálnych zón náplavových kužeľov Podmalokarpatskej zníženiny a okrajového pásma pohoria. Všetky povrchové akumulácie eolických pieskov sú vrchnopleistocénneho a mladšieho veku, v ktorých sa našli aj postglaciálne fosílne pôdy. Staršie akumulácie pieskov sú doložené vrtmi z výplní lokálnych neotektonických depresií. Hrúbka návejov v dunách dosahuje extrémne hodnoty, až do 40 m. Ďalším významným genotypom sú fluviálne akumulácie všetkých tokov so stratigrafickým rozpätím od spodného pleistocénu po holocén. Najstaršie fluviálne sedimenty sú známe z bazálnych častí kvartérnej výplne zohorsko-marcheggskej depresie a mladšie, okrem uvedenej, aj z kútskej čiastkovej depresie. Na pozitívnych štruktúrach tvoria náplň systému riečnych terás spodného až vrchného pleistocénu a dnových akumulácií vrchného pleistocénu vrátane ich holocénneho nivného pokryvu. Sedimenty terás sa zachovali najmä pozdĺž toku Moravy v relatívnej výške 3 – 25 m a vo vzdialenejších miestach od toku vo výške až do 70 m. Okrem doteraz známych piesčitých štrkov sedimenty terás tvorí najmä štrkovitý piesok a piesok s častým pokryvom eolického piesku. Akumulácie terás dosahujú hrúbku do 15 m. Hrúbka vrchnopleistocénnej dnovej akumulácie Moravy sa pohybuje v nive medzi 3 – 9 m a v nízkej terase 8 – 10 m. V nive Myjavy je hrúbka v rozmedzí 2 – 5 m a v depresiách narastá až na 40 m. Fluviálne sedimenty holocénnej nivnej fácie zaberajú celkovo najväčšiu plochu. V nivnom kryte Moravy sú dvojstupňové. Prikorytovú časť zastupujú piesčité štrky a zvyšky pieskov agradačných valov. Podstatnú časť nív všetkých tokov tvoria hlinité a piesčito-hlinité povodňové sedimenty. Sú uložené na piesčitých štrkoch dnovej akumulácie. Ich hrúbka sa pohybuje v rozpätí 0,5 – 3 m. Plošne aj objemovo nasledujú proluviálne sedimenty často rozsiahlych vejárov náplavových kužeľov s časovým rozpätím od spodného pleistocénu po holocén, lemujúce úpätie Malých Karpát a vypĺňajúce podstatnú časť Podmalokarpatskej zníženiny. Vystupujú tak vo forme vložených terasovaných kužeľov, ako aj vo forme naložených kužeľov. Kužele podmalokarpatského pásma obsahujú piesčito-štrkovo-úlomkovitý materiál s vložkami eolických pieskov. Podľa tvaru veľmi ploché sú najmladšie nadnivné a nivné kužele vyskytujúce sa po obvode nív hlavných tokov alebo v distálnych zónach starších kužeľov. Najväčšiu hrúbku, až 120 m, dosahujú proluviálne sedimenty vo výplni lokálnej perneckej depresie a 70 m vo výplni sološnicko-plaveckej depresie. Eolické pokryvy vrchnopleistocénnych spraší a sprašových hlín v rôznych varietach sa zachovali v priľahlej časti Chvojnickej pahorkatiny. V okolí Senice sa vyvinuli aj sprašové série tvoriace pokryv strednopleistocénnych fluviálnych terás a proluviálnych kužeľov. Hrúbka sprašových pokryvov sa v priemere pohybuje medzi 2 – 10 m. Sprašové hliny tvoria nesúvislý pokryv. Tvoria ich odvápnené hliny. Z hľadiska objemu hmoty sú významné aj rozličné druhy pleistocénno-holocénnych zvetranín a svahových sedimentov a ich kombinácií, viazaných najmä na svahy a ich úpätia v priľahlej časti Malých Karpát. Ide o zmes deluviálno-soliflukčných svahovín a sutín od piesčito-kamenitých a piesčitých cez deluviálne hlinitokamenité a hlinito-piesčité až po výlučne hlinité. V okolí výstupov fluviálnych terás, na okrajoch vejárov náplavových kužeľov a v okolí výstupov neogénneho podložia v štrkovom a zlepencovom vývoji dominujú akumulácie deluviálnych a deluviálno-fluviálnych piesčito-hlinitých štrkov. Významné sú aj deluviálno-proluviálne akumulácie dejekčných kužeľov a proluviálno-soliflukčné telesá svahových prúdov vystupujúce lokálne na svahoch pohoria. Na miestach s výskytom eolických pieskov v zníženinách a úvalinách sa nachádzajú deluviálno-fluviálne piesky. Aluviálne nivy sú spestrené sieťou mŕtvych ramien a iných zníženín reliéfu, v ktorých dominujú rozličné subtypy fluviálno-organických kalových a hnilokalových humóznych piesčitých hlín a organogénnych humóznych rašelinových hlín a slatín. Tieto sedimenty sa nachádzajú aj v medzidunových močaristých zníženinách, ako aj v distálnych zónach kužeľov na styku s pieskami. Výpočet akumulácií dopĺňajú lokálne výskyty chemogénno-organogénnych pramenných vápencov pri Borinke (holocén) a pri Perneku (stredný/vrchný pleistocén – ém) a uzatvárajú početné antropogénne akumulácie v podobe navážok, násypov, skládok a háld.

Seismic slip rates, potential subsurface rupture areas and seismic potential of the Vienna Basin Transfer Fault

Article

Nov 2011
INT J EARTH SCI

The Vienna Basin Transfer Fault (VBTF) is a slow active fault with moderate seismicity (I max~8–9, M max~5.7) passing through the most vulnerable regions of Austria and Slovakia. We use different data to constrain the seismic potential of the VBTF including slip values computed from the seismic energy release during the 20th century, geological data on fault segmentation and a depth-extrapolated 3-D model of a generalized fault surface, which is used to define potential rupture zones. The seismic slip of the VBTF as a whole is in the range of 0.22–0.31 mm/year for a seismogenic fault thickness of 8 km. Seismic slip rates for individual segments vary from 0.00 to 0.77 mm/year. Comparing these data to geologically and GPS-derived slip velocities (>1 mm/year) proofs that the fault yields a significant seismic slip deficit. Segments of the fault with high seismic slip contrast from segments with no slip representing locked segments. Fault surfaces of segments within the seismogenic zone (4–14 km depth) vary from 55 to 400 km2. Empirical scaling relations show that these segments are sufficiently large to explain both, earthquakes observed in the last centuries, and the 4th century Carnuntum earthquake, for which archeo-seismological data suggest a magnitude of M ≥ 6. Based on the combination of all data (incomplete earthquake catalog, seismic slip deficits, locked segments, potential rupture areas, indications of strong pre-catalog earthquakes) we argue, that the maximum credible earthquake for the VBTF is in the range M max = 6.0–6.8, significantly larger than the magnitude of the strongest recorded events (M = 5.7).

The Lassee segment of the Vienna Basin fault system as a potential source of the earthquake of Carnuntum in the fourth century a.d.

Article

Sep 2011
INT J EARTH SCI

The Vienna Basin fault system is a slow moving (1-2 mm/y) active sinistral fault extending from the Alps through the Vienna Basin into the Carpathians. It comprises an array of NE-striking sinistral strike-slip segments, which differ both by their kinematic and seismologic properties. Among these, the Lassee segment 30 km east of Vienna is of particular interest for seismic hazard assessment as it shows a significant seismic slip deficit. The segment is located about 8 km from the Roman city of Carnuntum, for which archaeological data indicate a destructive earthquake in the fourth century a. d. (local intensity about 9 EMS-98). Mapping of the Lassee segment using 2D seismic, GPR, tectonic geomorphology and Pleistocene basin analysis shows a negative flower structure at a releasing bend of the Vienna Basin fault. The hanging wall of the flower structure includes a Quaternary basin filled with up to 100-m thick Pleistocene growth strata. Faults root in the basal detachment of the Alpine-Carpathian floor thrust at about 8 km depth. The active faults east of the flower structure offset a Middle Pleistocene terrace of the Danube River forming an up to 20-m high composite fault scarp. High-resolution GPR (40, 500 MHz) mapped at least four distinct surface-breaking faults along this scarp including three faults, which are covered by about 2 m of post-tectonic strata. The youngest fault offsets these strata and coincides with a 0.5-m high scarp. This scarp may be interpreted as the product of a single surface-breaking earthquake, provided that the mapped fault offset formed during coseismic surface rupture. Data indicate that the Lassee segment may well be regarded the source of the fourth century earthquake. The interpretation is in line with local attenuation relations indicating a source close to the damaged site, observed fault dimensions and the fault offsets recorded by GPR and morphology.

Quantitative archaeoseismological investigation of the Great Theatre of Larissa, Greece

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2011
B EARTHQ ENG

Larissa, the capital of Thessaly, is located in the eastern part of Central Greece, at the southern border of a Late Quarternary graben, the Tyrnavos Basin. Palaeoseismological, morphotectonic, and geophysical investigations as well as historical and instrumental records show evidences for seismic activity in this area. Previous investigations documented the occurrence of several moderate to strong earthquakes during Holocene time on active faults with recurrence intervals of a few thousand years. The historical and instrumental records suggest a period of seismic quiescence during the last 400–500years. The present archaeoseismological research, based on a multidisciplinary approach is devoted to improve the knowledge on past earthquakes, which occurred in the area. This study focuses on damages observed on the walls of the scene building of the Great Theatre of Larissa. The Theatre was built at the beginning of the third century BC and consists of a semicircular auditorium, an almost circular arena and a main scene building. Archaeological and historical investigations document a partial destruction of the theatre during the second to first century BC. Recent excavations show that the building complex after it was repaired suffered additional structural damages, probably from seismic loading. The damages investigated in detail are displacements, rotations and ruptures of numerous blocks at the walls of the scene building. In order to test the earthquake hypothesis as cause of the damages a simplified seismotectonic model of the Tyrnavos Basin and its surroundings was used with a composite earthquake source model to calculate synthetic seismograms at the Larissa site for various earthquake scenarios. Horizontal to vertical seismic ratio (HVSR) measurements in the theatre and its vicinity were used to estimate local site effects. The synthetic seismograms are then used as input accelerations for a finite element model of the walls, which simulates seismically induced in-plane sliding within the walls. Results show that some of the surrounding faults have the potential to produce seismic ground motion that can induce in-plane sliding of blocks. Model calculations were used to constrain the characteristics of the ground acceleration and infer the causative fault and earthquake by comparing the calculated and observed distribution of the displacements of the blocks. Ground motions with a PGA at the site of 0.62–0.82g, which could be induced by an M 5.8–6.0 earthquake on the nearby Larissa Fault, would be sufficient to explain the damage. KeywordsArchaeoseismology–Thessaly–Ancient theatre–Cultural heritage–Seismic hazard

City map of Carnuntum . Damaged structures were excavated from eight locations distributed over the entire settlement ( bullets 1 to 8 ). Descriptions of the damaged

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