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![Fig. 2 Typical structure of PAtBA [48]](profile/Mohamed-Khodja/publication/330607845/figure/fig2/AS:891453089787904@1589550387985/Typical-structure-of-PAtBA-48_Q320.jpg)
![Fig. 3 Nucleophilic attack on the ester groups of PAtBA [48]](profile/Mohamed-Khodja/publication/330607845/figure/fig3/AS:891453093994496@1589550388012/Nucleophilic-attack-on-the-ester-groups-of-PAtBA-48_Q320.jpg)
![Fig. 6 Transamidation reaction [48]](profile/Mohamed-Khodja/publication/330607845/figure/fig4/AS:891453110771713@1589550392441/Transamidation-reaction-48_Q320.jpg)
![Fig. 7 % Unprotonated nitrogens of PEI versus pH [84]](profile/Mohamed-Khodja/publication/330607845/figure/fig5/AS:891453110747138@1589550392469/Unprotonated-nitrogens-of-PEI-versus-pH-84_Q320.jpg)
Several crosslinked polymer gels have been developed over the last 5 decades to address the different technical challenges in oil reservoirs especially conformance control operations. Among these systems, polyethylenimine (PEI) crosslinked polymer gels, which have gained a huge interest thanks to their eco-friendly aspect and thermal stability at e...
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... is a low molecular weight branched polymer with molecular weights varying between 0.8 and 750 kDa. PEI, as shown in Fig. 1, consists essentially of amino groups: (1) primary amine end groups (NH 2 ), (2) secondary amine linear units (NH), (3) tertiary amine branched (i.e., dendritic) units and is characterized by a degree of branching (DB) defined as: DB = 2D/(2D + L), where D is the dendritic unit and L is the linear unit [28]. Some of the primary and ...
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... attempt to examine new acrylamide-based polymers that can give relevant gelation times at extreme temperatures as high as 170 °C, Vasquez et al. [9] investigated the crosslinking of acrylamide/AMPSA copolymer shown in Fig. 10 with PEI. Excellent gelation times, that vary between 2 and 20 h, were obtained in the temperature range of 132.2-176.6 °C, compared to only 0.2 to 0.3 h at 130 °C for PAtBA/PEI and PAM/PEI gels. This delayed crosslinking was essentially caused by the steric hindrance provided by the methyl-propane sulfonic acid functional groups [17]. ...
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... compared to only 0.2 to 0.3 h at 130 °C for PAtBA/PEI and PAM/PEI gels. This delayed crosslinking was essentially caused by the steric hindrance provided by the methyl-propane sulfonic acid functional groups [17]. Further investigations by Vasquez et al. [10] led to the acrylamide, AMPSA, N,N-dimethyl acrylamide (N,N-DMA) terpolymer as shown in Fig. 11. The added ,N-DMA groups were supposed to further delay the crosslinking rate via their steric hindrance. However, gelation times were very sensitive to the pH of the solution and the salinity of mixing brine. For example, the gelation time decreased from 24 h to only 2 h when the pH of the solution passed from 11 to 8 at 135 °C. ...
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... using amine bases activators. Alkanolamines such as ethanolamine (EA), diethanolamine (DEA) and triethanolamine (TEA) and olgomeric polyamines such as ethylenediamine (EDA), diethylenetriamine (DETA), triethylenetetraamine (TETA) and tetraethylenepentaamine (TEPA) were all examined to activate the PEI through reaction pathways shown in Fig. 12. These chemical activators effectively reduced the gelation time for the PHPA/PEI gel at 26.6 °C and for the PAtBA/PEI gel at 71.1 °C. They allowed also to reduce 30 to 50% the needed amount of reactants for a given gelation time. This was the case for a specific amount of activators; higher amounts acted inversely as in the case for ...
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... and the net oil production increased initially by 2500 BOPD (barrels of oil per day) then stabilized at 1000 BOPD during 1 year of production, while the water cut decreased from 63 to 25%. The production in the second well (144 °C) was sadly lost. The gel/cement mixture showed some drawbacks such as the interaction between cement retarders Fig. 12 Two potential ways for PEI activation using amine-based activators [29] and the gel, the need to drill out a part of the system from the well, the difficulty of treatment design at high temperatures. These drawbacks encouraged to replace the cement by other inert materials. The choice was rapidly fixed on silica flour because of its ...
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... ways for PEI activation using amine-based activators [29] and the gel, the need to drill out a part of the system from the well, the difficulty of treatment design at high temperatures. These drawbacks encouraged to replace the cement by other inert materials. The choice was rapidly fixed on silica flour because of its inert nature as shown in Fig. 13 [72], similar particle distribution, cheaper price and availability. The effect of temperature, permeability and silica flour percentage on the leakoff and sealing abilities of a gel/silica flour mixture were thus investigated [73]. The percentage of silica flour was found to have the greater effect on leakoff percentage, while the ...
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... efforts by Adewunmi et al. [74] led to coal fly ash (CFA) as a potential additive to reinforce PAM/PEI gels. CFA is an inorganic waste material constituted essentially of silica and alumina [75]. Gelation kinetics and the viscoelastic behavior of PAM/PEI + CFA gels were evaluated at 90 °C, where the results showed a delayed gelation times and an Fig. 13 Silica flour (filtrate) effect on gelation time [72] improved viscoelastic behavior of these systems. More recently, Chen et al. investigated the reinforcing performance of nanosilica on PAM/PEI gels through core flooding tests in sandpack. The gel strength and stability were highly improved thanks to the hydrogen bonding between the ...
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... is a low molecular weight branched polymer with molecular weights varying between 0.8 and 750 kDa. PEI, as shown in Fig. 1, consists essentially of amino groups: (1) primary amine end groups (NH 2 ), (2) secondary amine linear units (NH), (3) tertiary amine branched (i.e., dendritic) units and is characterized by a degree of branching (DB) defined as: DB = 2D/(2D + L), where D is the dendritic unit and L is the linear unit [28]. Some of the primary and ...
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... attempt to examine new acrylamide-based polymers that can give relevant gelation times at extreme temperatures as high as 170 °C, Vasquez et al. [9] investigated the crosslinking of acrylamide/AMPSA copolymer shown in Fig. 10 with PEI. Excellent gelation times, that vary between 2 and 20 h, were obtained in the temperature range of 132.2-176.6 °C, compared to only 0.2 to 0.3 h at 130 °C for PAtBA/PEI and PAM/PEI gels. This delayed crosslinking was essentially caused by the steric hindrance provided by the methyl-propane sulfonic acid functional groups [17]. ...
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... compared to only 0.2 to 0.3 h at 130 °C for PAtBA/PEI and PAM/PEI gels. This delayed crosslinking was essentially caused by the steric hindrance provided by the methyl-propane sulfonic acid functional groups [17]. Further investigations by Vasquez et al. [10] led to the acrylamide, AMPSA, N,N-dimethyl acrylamide (N,N-DMA) terpolymer as shown in Fig. 11. The added ,N-DMA groups were supposed to further delay the crosslinking rate via their steric hindrance. However, gelation times were very sensitive to the pH of the solution and the salinity of mixing brine. For example, the gelation time decreased from 24 h to only 2 h when the pH of the solution passed from 11 to 8 at 135 °C. ...
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... using amine bases activators. Alkanolamines such as ethanolamine (EA), diethanolamine (DEA) and triethanolamine (TEA) and olgomeric polyamines such as ethylenediamine (EDA), diethylenetriamine (DETA), triethylenetetraamine (TETA) and tetraethylenepentaamine (TEPA) were all examined to activate the PEI through reaction pathways shown in Fig. 12. These chemical activators effectively reduced the gelation time for the PHPA/PEI gel at 26.6 °C and for the PAtBA/PEI gel at 71.1 °C. They allowed also to reduce 30 to 50% the needed amount of reactants for a given gelation time. This was the case for a specific amount of activators; higher amounts acted inversely as in the case for ...
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... and the net oil production increased initially by 2500 BOPD (barrels of oil per day) then stabilized at 1000 BOPD during 1 year of production, while the water cut decreased from 63 to 25%. The production in the second well (144 °C) was sadly lost. The gel/cement mixture showed some drawbacks such as the interaction between cement retarders Fig. 12 Two potential ways for PEI activation using amine-based activators [29] and the gel, the need to drill out a part of the system from the well, the difficulty of treatment design at high temperatures. These drawbacks encouraged to replace the cement by other inert materials. The choice was rapidly fixed on silica flour because of its ...
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... ways for PEI activation using amine-based activators [29] and the gel, the need to drill out a part of the system from the well, the difficulty of treatment design at high temperatures. These drawbacks encouraged to replace the cement by other inert materials. The choice was rapidly fixed on silica flour because of its inert nature as shown in Fig. 13 [72], similar particle distribution, cheaper price and availability. The effect of temperature, permeability and silica flour percentage on the leakoff and sealing abilities of a gel/silica flour mixture were thus investigated [73]. The percentage of silica flour was found to have the greater effect on leakoff percentage, while the ...
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... efforts by Adewunmi et al. [74] led to coal fly ash (CFA) as a potential additive to reinforce PAM/PEI gels. CFA is an inorganic waste material constituted essentially of silica and alumina [75]. Gelation kinetics and the viscoelastic behavior of PAM/PEI + CFA gels were evaluated at 90 °C, where the results showed a delayed gelation times and an Fig. 13 Silica flour (filtrate) effect on gelation time [72] improved viscoelastic behavior of these systems. More recently, Chen et al. investigated the reinforcing performance of nanosilica on PAM/PEI gels through core flooding tests in sandpack. The gel strength and stability were highly improved thanks to the hydrogen bonding between the ...
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... is a low molecular weight branched polymer with molecular weights varying between 0.8 and 750 kDa. PEI, as shown in Fig. 1, consists essentially of amino groups: (1) primary amine end groups (NH 2 ), (2) secondary amine linear units (NH), (3) tertiary amine branched (i.e., dendritic) units and is characterized by a degree of branching (DB) defined as: DB = 2D/(2D + L), where D is the dendritic unit and L is the linear unit [28]. Some of the primary and ...
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... attempt to examine new acrylamide-based polymers that can give relevant gelation times at extreme temperatures as high as 170 °C, Vasquez et al. [9] investigated the crosslinking of acrylamide/AMPSA copolymer shown in Fig. 10 with PEI. Excellent gelation times, that vary between 2 and 20 h, were obtained in the temperature range of 132.2-176.6 °C, compared to only 0.2 to 0.3 h at 130 °C for PAtBA/PEI and PAM/PEI gels. This delayed crosslinking was essentially caused by the steric hindrance provided by the methyl-propane sulfonic acid functional groups [17]. ...
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... compared to only 0.2 to 0.3 h at 130 °C for PAtBA/PEI and PAM/PEI gels. This delayed crosslinking was essentially caused by the steric hindrance provided by the methyl-propane sulfonic acid functional groups [17]. Further investigations by Vasquez et al. [10] led to the acrylamide, AMPSA, N,N-dimethyl acrylamide (N,N-DMA) terpolymer as shown in Fig. 11. The added ,N-DMA groups were supposed to further delay the crosslinking rate via their steric hindrance. However, gelation times were very sensitive to the pH of the solution and the salinity of mixing brine. For example, the gelation time decreased from 24 h to only 2 h when the pH of the solution passed from 11 to 8 at 135 °C. ...
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... using amine bases activators. Alkanolamines such as ethanolamine (EA), diethanolamine (DEA) and triethanolamine (TEA) and olgomeric polyamines such as ethylenediamine (EDA), diethylenetriamine (DETA), triethylenetetraamine (TETA) and tetraethylenepentaamine (TEPA) were all examined to activate the PEI through reaction pathways shown in Fig. 12. These chemical activators effectively reduced the gelation time for the PHPA/PEI gel at 26.6 °C and for the PAtBA/PEI gel at 71.1 °C. They allowed also to reduce 30 to 50% the needed amount of reactants for a given gelation time. This was the case for a specific amount of activators; higher amounts acted inversely as in the case for ...
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... and the net oil production increased initially by 2500 BOPD (barrels of oil per day) then stabilized at 1000 BOPD during 1 year of production, while the water cut decreased from 63 to 25%. The production in the second well (144 °C) was sadly lost. The gel/cement mixture showed some drawbacks such as the interaction between cement retarders Fig. 12 Two potential ways for PEI activation using amine-based activators [29] and the gel, the need to drill out a part of the system from the well, the difficulty of treatment design at high temperatures. These drawbacks encouraged to replace the cement by other inert materials. The choice was rapidly fixed on silica flour because of its ...
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... ways for PEI activation using amine-based activators [29] and the gel, the need to drill out a part of the system from the well, the difficulty of treatment design at high temperatures. These drawbacks encouraged to replace the cement by other inert materials. The choice was rapidly fixed on silica flour because of its inert nature as shown in Fig. 13 [72], similar particle distribution, cheaper price and availability. The effect of temperature, permeability and silica flour percentage on the leakoff and sealing abilities of a gel/silica flour mixture were thus investigated [73]. The percentage of silica flour was found to have the greater effect on leakoff percentage, while the ...
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... efforts by Adewunmi et al. [74] led to coal fly ash (CFA) as a potential additive to reinforce PAM/PEI gels. CFA is an inorganic waste material constituted essentially of silica and alumina [75]. Gelation kinetics and the viscoelastic behavior of PAM/PEI + CFA gels were evaluated at 90 °C, where the results showed a delayed gelation times and an Fig. 13 Silica flour (filtrate) effect on gelation time [72] improved viscoelastic behavior of these systems. More recently, Chen et al. investigated the reinforcing performance of nanosilica on PAM/PEI gels through core flooding tests in sandpack. The gel strength and stability were highly improved thanks to the hydrogen bonding between the ...
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A delayed crosslinked polymer gel was developed for in-depth water control in mature oilfields. The thermal gelation behavior of nonionic polyacrylamide (NPAM) and PEI was investigated, and sodium citrate (NaCit) was selected as a new retarder to prolong the gelation time. The gelation performance of NPAM/PEI gel system can be adjusted by varying N...
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... However, the most successful applications of PEI crosslinked polymer gel systems have been observed in extreme conditions such as high temperatures and severe formation leakages, which require high polymer concentrations (2.0-7.0 wt.%) [24][25][26][27]. High polymer concentrations lead to the high viscosity of the gelant, resulting in exceptionally high injection pressures in field tests and limiting access to deep reservoirs, especially in low-permeability reservoirs [28,29]. Meanwhile, the high cost associated with high polymer concentrations is also an important reason limiting their widespread application. ...
... The concentration at which the polymer molecules begin to overlap and interpenetrate is known as the critical overlap concentration (C*). In polymer gel systems, the polymer concentration must exceed this critical overlap concentration to achieve a continuous three-dimensional microstructure in the gel [28]. The critical overlap concentration can be determined from the logarithmic relationship between the polymer concentration and apparent viscosity. ...
HPAM/PEI gel is a promising material for conformance control in hydrocarbon reservoirs. However, its use in low-permeability reservoirs is limited by the high polymer concentrations present. In this study, the gelation performance of an HPAM/PEI system with HPAM < 2.0 wt.% was systematically investigated. The gelation time for HPAM concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 2.0 wt.% varied from less than 1 h to 23 days, with the highest gel strength identified as grade H. The hydrodynamic radius manifested the primary effect of HPAM on the gelation performance. Branched PEI provided superior gelation performance over linear PEI, and the gelation performance was only affected when the molecular weight of the PEI varied significantly. The optimal number ratio of the PEI-provided imine groups and the HPAM-provided carboxylic acid functional groups was approximately 1.6:1~5:1. Regarding the reservoir conditions, the temperature had a crucial effect on the hydrodynamic radius of HPAM. Salts delayed the gelation process, and the order of ionic influence was Ca2+ > Na+ > K+. The pH controlled the crosslinking reaction, primarily due to the protonation degree of PEI and the hydrolysis degree of HPAM, and the most suitable pH was approximately 10.5. Plugging experiments based on a through-type fracture showed that multi-slug plugging could significantly improve the plugging performance of the system, being favorable for its application in fractured low-permeability reservoirs.
... Lian 18 prepared CoFe 2 O 4 /chitosan nanoparticles that exhibit good salt resistance and can reduce the IFT between crude oil/water to ultra-lower values in the Shengli oilfield without other additives, indicating their potential for practical applications 18 . Ghriga et al. 19 provided a comprehensive review of various polymer/ polyethyleneimine (PEI) gels, including PAtBA, PAM, PHPA, HAP, AM/AMPS copolymer, and AM/AMPS/N, N-DMA terpolymer, along with recent advancements and successful field applications. Additionally, they investigated the impact of salinity, polymer, and crosslinker concentrations, as well as temperature, on the thermal gelation kinetics of PHPA/PEI gels to mitigate undesired fluid production. ...
Chemical flooding through biopolymers acquires higher attention, especially in acidic reservoirs. This research focuses on the application of biopolymers in chemical flooding for enhanced oil recovery in acidic reservoirs, with a particular emphasis on modified chitosan. The modification process involved combining chitosan with vinyl/silane monomers via emulsion polymerization, followed by an assessment of its rheological behavior under simulated reservoir conditions, including salinity, temperature, pressure, and medium pH. Laboratory-scale flooding experiments were carried out using both the original and modified chitosan at conditions of 2200 psi, 135,000 ppm salinity, and 196° temperature. The study evaluated the impact of pressure on the rheological properties of both chitosan forms, finding that the modified composite was better suited to acidic environments, showing enhanced resistance to pressure effects with a significant increase in viscosity and an 11% improvement in oil recovery over the 5% achieved with the unmodified chitosan. Advanced modeling and simulation techniques, particularly using the tNavigator Simulator on the Bahariya formations in the Western Desert, were employed to further understand the polymer solution dynamics in reservoir contexts and to predict key petroleum engineering metrics. The simulation results underscored the effectiveness of the chitosan composite in increasing oil recovery rates, with the composite outperforming both its native counterpart and traditional water flooding, achieving a recovery factor of 48%, compared to 39% and 37% for native chitosan and water flooding, thereby demonstrating the potential benefits of chitosan composites in enhancing oil recovery operations.
... Apart from these aldehyde-based crosslinkers, polyamine, such as trimethylene tetra amine and polyethyleneimine, is a new type of crosslinker that can crosslink acrylamide-based polymers in a wide temperature range. It has been proved that polyethyleneimine can crosslink the polymer from 4.4 to 176 • C, and the crosslinked gels have excellent thermal stability (Ghriga et al., 2019(Ghriga et al., , 2020Reddy et al., 2012;Vasquez, 2005). For example, the polyethyleneimine crosslinked gel was proved to be stable for over 300 days at 176 • C (Vasquez, 2005). ...
... Nanotechnology is gaining a huge interest in the oil industry [21]. The utilization of nanotechnology in the development of pour point depressants (PPDs) of crude oil has gained significant attention in recent years [22][23][24]. ...
A novel pour point depressant was synthesized by developing a polymeric nanocomposite using polymethacrylate and magnetite nanoparticles. The primary objective was to assess and compare the efficacy of PMA and PMA/Fe3O4 nanocomposite in reducing the gelation point, yield stress, apparent viscosity, and pour point of waxy crude oil. Extensive assessments were conducted to evaluate the performance of these additives. Rheometry tests were employed to measure the pour point of the lubricating oil pour point following the addition of PMA and PMA/Fe3O4 nanocomposite. The findings demonstrated a significant reduction in pour point, reaching values of − 18 °C, − 27 °C, − 24 °C, and − 36 °C for CP1, CP2, NP1, and NP2, respectively, at an optimal concentration of 10,000 ppm. Various characterization techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer, Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, X-ray Diffraction, Scanning Electron Microscope, Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Dynamic Light Scattering, Polarized Optical Microscope, and Gel Permeation Chromatography were utilized to analyze the polymers. Furthermore, the effectiveness of each polymer as a viscosity index improver (VII) and pour point depressant for mineral-based oil was evaluated. The mechanism of action of the polymers as pour point depressants was investigated through photomicrographic analysis. Additionally, the rheological properties of the formulated lubricant were assessed and reported. Thermogravimetric analysis was used to determine the thermal stability of the polymers, revealing that the copolymer nanocomposites exhibited higher thermal stability, viscosity index (VI), and molecular weights compared to the copolymers alone. These enhancements in thermal stability and molecular properties contributed to the improved pour point depressant (PPD) properties. Overall, the study successfully synthesized a novel pour point depressant and evaluated its performance using various tests and characterization techniques. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of the additives in reducing the pour point and improving the thermal stability of the lubricating oil.
... Optimal zero-shear viscosity at 20 °C required 50 ppm concentration and 1000 nm microspheres. Generally, Ghriga et al. [25] present a review of the different polymers (like PAtBA, PAM, PHPA, HAP, AM/AMPS copolymer and AM/ AMPS/N, N-DMA terpolymer) /polyethylenimine (PEI) gels reported in the literature alongside with their latest improvements, as well as some of the successful well applications around the world. Lebouachera et al. [26] examined the rheological properties of polymer-particle composite (PPC) solutions. ...
Chemical flooding is a crucial technique in petroleum recovery. Although synthetic polyacrylamides are widely used, they suffer from hard reservoir conditions (high salinity, temperature, and pressure) and high costs. Current efforts focus on eco-friendly and affordable biopolymers like xanthan gum to overcome these issues. This study screens xanthan gum modification to improve its rheological properties and tolerance to high temperature, salinity, and shearing action by copolymerizing it with vinyl silane, vinyl monomers, and silica nanoparticles. The new composite was characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), and proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) tests. Its implementation was evaluated in polymer flooding at 2200 psi pressure, 135,000 ppm salinity, and 196°F temperature. Unlike previous studies that evaluated xanthan gum at 176 °F, 1800 psi, and 30,000 ppm, without combining those three factors in one experiment. The rheological properties of native and composite xanthan were examined at reservoir conditions, as well as their viscoelastic properties (G′ and G″). Flooding runs used actual Bahariya formation cores at the lab scale. Simulation studies were conducted on a lab/field scale using the tNavigator simulator and economic feasibility to calculate the net present value. The most outcoming findings of this research comprise (1) investigating the impact of salinity, temperature, and pressure on the rheological properties of native and composite xanthan. (2) The composite xanthan exhibits more resistant criteria, as it recovered 27% residual oil versus 22% for native xanthan. (3) Modeling and simulation studies exhibit 48% oil recovery for composite versus 39% for native xanthan and 37% for water flooding. (4) Economically, using native and composite xanthan through enhanced oil recovery methods increased net present value to $32 mm and $58 mm versus traditional methods.
... It represents a growing trend in gel development for profile control in the oilfield. However, they encounter challenges when dealing with high-temperature and highsalt reservoir conditions [4][5][6][7]. ...
In this paper, the aluminum gel with polymeric aluminum chloride (PAC) as the gelling agent and carbamide as a catalyst were investigated. The gelling regularities were studied, and its gelling performance was evaluated under high temperature and high salinity. The results showed that the basicity, mass fraction of PAC and carbamide, temperature, and salinity significantly influenced the formation of the gel. The gel exhibited exceptional thermal stability and gel strength under high temperature and salinity conditions. The results indicated that when the aluminum gel was prepared with 8 wt% PAC and 1 wt% carbamide and dissolved in brine with a salinity of 110,000 mg/L, the dehydration rate was less than 1 wt% after being aged for 180 days at 130 °C. Furthermore, the gel strength, elasticity, and yield stress increased with the rise in salinity. The experimental results showed that the aluminum gel is highly significant in plugging reservoirs with high temperature, high salinity, and low permeability.
... 29 We also note that PEI(b) is a water-soluble viscous liquid known for its eco-friendliness and extensive use as a cross-linker in cellulose materials. 30,31 Therefore, utilizing PEI(b) for chemical modication to enhance the tribo-positivity of the CA nanober aligns well with our goal of employing eco-friendly materials in our study. ...
Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have predominantly relied on non-degradable polymers for their development, raising concerns about their environmental impact upon disposal. In response, the exploration of alternative paths for TENGs fabrication...
... At the biological level, the presence of amino groups allows PEI macromolecules to chemically bind to the phospholipid layers of cells. This occurs as a result of the possibility of ammonium ion generation depending on the pH of the medium, which confers cationic nature to the polymer [85], favoring its transport along the cell membrane, as well as any other molecule that may eventually be complexed with the carrier polymer [84]. While studying the action of PEI as an intranasal vaccine adjuvant agent against Streptococcus, Dai and coauthors (2021) [86] observed its potential application. ...
Regarding its evolutionary scale, mankind has made important achievements in a short period of time. The last 50 years have been fundamental for the development of technologies that currently allow human beings to make safe journeys in the orbit of the planet, study and accurately analyze the universe, build smart cities, propose more sustainable production processes, etc. The technological leap of the last decades has influenced practically all sectors, from engineering to medicine. There are many factors that allowed for technological evolution, and one of them refers to the development of new materials. Herein, polymers stand out. The versatility of these materials reinforced their relevance during the SARS-CoV-2 period. In the period when many medical and hospital supplies were exhausted, polymers were useful for manufacturing items such as face shields, general purpose masks, and swabs, helping to counter the spread of the virus. Two years after the pandemic peak, the challenge is to fight the viral variants and make the methods of diagnosis and treatment more effective. In this regard, nanotechnology and nanoscience seem to be promising for this purpose. Through a review study, the present work aims to identify technologies already available or under development that allow for the use of polymeric nanomaterials against the spread of the new coronavirus and its variants.
... Its cationic property is due to its primary and secondary amino groups protonated to ammonium ions (Reddy et al., 2013). PEI was shown to effectively crosslink with various acrylamide-based polymers through different mechanisms (nucleophilic attack, transamidation reaction, acid-base interaction) (Ghriga et al., 2019). The gelation kinetics, the viscoelastic properties, and the performance of PEI with polymer gels in porous media have been investigated in multiple studies (Al-Muntasheri et al., 2008;G.A. Al-Muntasheri et al., 2006). ...
... PAM crosslinked with PEI (PAM/PEI) gels have been shown to have faster gelation time, lower activation energy, more stability, and more crosslinking than PAtBA/PEI gels (G.A. Al-Muntasheri et al., 2006;El-Karsani et al., 2013;Magzoub et al., 2020). Crosslinked PAM has also been developed to successfully mitigate lost circulation at low temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico (Ghriga et al., 2019;Sweatman et al., 2007). Using emulsified PAM/PEI gels as water permeability reducers, Mohamed et al. (2015) showed how this gel system could be used to break emulsions, thereby enabling the possibility of their application for isolation in producer wells. ...
... 14,15 Polyethyleneimine (PEI) is a non-toxic and environmentally friendly organic crosslinker that is approved for food contact in the USA. 16 It has been extensively applied to the cross-linking of polyacrylamides at high temperatures. 16,17 However, only a few studies state the gelation behavior of PAM by using PEI as a cross-linker at a mild temperature. ...
... 16 It has been extensively applied to the cross-linking of polyacrylamides at high temperatures. 16,17 However, only a few studies state the gelation behavior of PAM by using PEI as a cross-linker at a mild temperature. 18,19 Alisson and Purkaple, 20 for example, showed that a viscous gel can be quickly formed at room temperature by mixing 0.1% polyacrylamide and 2.5% PEI. ...
Polymer gel systems find applications in diverse areas, ranging from contact lenses to agriculture and oil production. In general, polyacrylamide (PAM) gels are produced by reaction with metallic (low temperatures) and organic (high temperatures) crosslinking agents. In this paper, given crescent environmental concerns, polyethyleneimine (PEI), an organic reactant, was chosen as the crosslinker of PAM, at 65 ºC. The effects of using a solution of water/glycerol as the solvent for preparing the gels and the addition of diethylenetriamine (DETA), a n-alkylamine, on the gelation kinetics and gel stability were evaluated. The data presented in this paper indicates that the solvent mixture provided a more controlled gelling behavior by means of delaying the gelation time. Also, diethylenetriamine acted both as an efficient anti-syneresis agent, improving gel stability, and by delaying the progress of gel’s strength.
