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Molecular structure of plastic polymers. (A) Polyethylene, (B) polystyrene, (C) poly(ethylene terephthalate), (D) polypropylene, (E) polyvinyl chloride, and (F) polyurethane.
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Plastics are very useful materials and present numerous advantages in the daily life of individuals and society. However, plastics are accumulating in the environment and due to their low biodegradability rate, this problem will persist for centuries. Until recently, oceans were treated as places to dispose of litter, thus the persistent substances...
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... As shown in Figure 3, the main biodegradation mechanism involves microorganisms adhering to the polymer surface and then colonizing the exposed surface. Following colonization, the polymer is hydrolytically broken down by enzymes released by bacteria, resulting in low-molecular-weight molecules until the final mineralization in CO 2 and H 2 O [115]. Figure 3, the main biodegradation mechanism involves microorganisms adhering to the polymer surface and then colonizing the exposed surface. Following colonization, the polymer is hydrolytically broken down by enzymes released by bacteria, resulting in low-molecular-weight molecules until the final mineralization in CO2 and H2O [115]. ...
... Following colonization, the polymer is hydrolytically broken down by enzymes released by bacteria, resulting in low-molecular-weight molecules until the final mineralization in CO 2 and H 2 O [115]. Figure 3, the main biodegradation mechanism involves microorganisms adhering to the polymer surface and then colonizing the exposed surface. Following colonization, the polymer is hydrolytically broken down by enzymes released by bacteria, resulting in low-molecular-weight molecules until the final mineralization in CO2 and H2O [115]. ...
Approximately 50% of global plastic wastes are produced from plastic packaging, a substantial amount of which is disposed of within a few minutes of its use. Although many plastic types are designed for single use, they are not always disposable. It is now widely acknowledged that the production and disposal of plastics have led to a plethora of negative consequences, including the contamination of both groundwater and soil resources and the deterioration of human health. The undeniable impact of excessive plastic manufacturing and waste generation on the global plastic pollution crisis has been well documented. Therefore, degradable polymers are a crucial solution to the problem of the non-degradation of plastic wastes. The disadvantage of degradable polymers is their high cost, so blending them with natural polymers will reduce the cost of final products and maximize their degradation rate, making degradable polymers competitive with industrial polymers that are currently in use daily. In this work, we will delineate various degradable polymers, including polycaprolactone, starch, and cellulose. Furthermore, we will elucidate several aspects of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and its blends with natural polymers to show the effects of adding natural polymers on PVA properties. This paper will study cost-effective and ecologically acceptable polymers by combining inexpensive natural polymers with readily accessible biodegradable polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).
... Polythene, renowned for its versatility and durability, is extensively used in various industries, including packaging, construction, and agriculture. However, its non-biodegradable nature poses a severe threat to ecosystems, wildlife, and human health [1][2][3][4][5]. In recent years, the detrimental effects of plastic pollution have spurred intensive research efforts to identify sustainable solutions for plastic waste management. ...
Plastic pollution, particularly from polythene (polyethylene), has emerged as a significant environmental concern worldwide. In response to this challenge, microbial perspectives on polythene biodegradation have garnered attention as potential solutions to mitigate plastic pollution. This article provides an overview of the mechanisms underlying microbial polythene biodegradation, including surface erosion, biofilm formation, metabolic pathways, synergistic interactions, and adaptation. Furthermore, it explores the diversity of polythene-degrading microorganisms and their roles in plastic degradation across different environments. Environmental factors influencing polythene biodegradation, such as temperature, pH, moisture, and nutrient availability, are discussed, along with strategies to optimize degradation rates. Biotechnological approaches, including microbial consortia development and genetic engineering, are highlighted as promising avenues to enhance polythene degradation efficiency. The article concludes with a discussion on the potential of microbial perspectives to address plastic pollution and outlines future research directions in this field.
... Each year, trillions of plastic packaging are used, and the old packaging materials are either discarded in landfills or sloughed off into the natural environment as litter (Hahladakis 2020;Kumar et al. 2021;Kehinde et al. 2020). Petrochemical feedstock-derived synthetic plastics are at the top of the priority list of these ever-accumulating pollutants, producing a number of environmental issues (Chamas et al. 2020;Oliveira et al. 2020;Aliko et al. 2022). The vast majority of the anticipated 8.3 billion virgin plastic products manufactured to date are single-used convenience items that have ended up in our natural surroundings (Nielsen et al. 2020). ...
The present work reports the application of novel gut strains Bacillus safensis CGK192 (Accession No. OM658336) and Bacillus australimaris CGK221 (Accession No. OM658338) in the biological degradation of synthetic polymer i.e., high-density polyethylene (HDPE). The biodegradation assay based on polymer weight loss was conducted under laboratory conditions for a period of 90 days along with regular evaluation of bacterial biomass in terms of total protein content and viable cells (CFU/cm²). Notably, both strains achieved significant weight reduction for HDPE films without any physical or chemical pretreatment in comparison to control. Hydrophobicity and biosurfactant characterization were also done in order to assess strains ability to form bacterial biofilm over the polymer surface. The post-degradation characterization of HDPE was also performed to confirm degradation using analytical techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Field emission scanning electronic microscopy (FE-SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Interestingly strain CGK221 was found to be more efficient in forming biofilm over polymer surface as indicated by lower half-life (i.e., 0.00032 day⁻¹) and higher carbonyl index in comparison to strain CGK192. The findings reflect the ability of our strains to develop biofilm and introduce an oxygenic functional group into the polymer surface, thereby making it more susceptible to degradation.
... Physical and chemical remedial approaches such as photo-oxidative, thermal, ozone, and methane chemicals have been implemented, but such solutions are not suitable for use at low plastic concentrations, these solutions can also cause secondary contamination, and they are costly Miri et al., 2022;Zeenat et al., 2021). Bioremediation is potential strategy for degrading microplastic polymers by converting them into monomers, making their components cellular material and energy, and producing environmentally harmless end products such as CH 3 (methyl), CO 2 (carbon dioxide), and H 2 O (water) (Mohanan et al., 2020;Oliveira et al., 2020). ...
Plastics that pollute the environment can be depleted to produce small plastic particles called microplastics. Microplastics have a wide range of negative effects on ecosystem health because they can enter food webs. This study has aimed to assess the ability of a consortium of bacteria colonizing plastic waste from Jakarta Bay to degrade polypropylene microplastics. The plastic waste was collected from 3 sampling points (Muara Kamal, Muara Angke, and Marina) and was enriched in the medium Zobell marine broth for 3d at 27 ˚C, at 125 rpm in an incubator shaker. The obtained bacterial consortium was then tested for their degrading activity on 0.2% polyethylene (PP) microplastics using Mineral Salt Medium (4.5 g/L K2HPO4, 0.2 g/L MgSO4.7H2O, 0.1 g/L CaCl2, 0.1 g/L NaCl, 0.002 g/L FeCl3, 0.1 g/L (NH4)2SO4) at 27 ˚C, 125 rpm for 60d. The results showed that the bacterial consortium degraded PP microplastic in the range of 2.16–6.6% (dry weight basis). Among the three sampling points, the bacterial consortium from Muara Angke exhibited the highest degradation activity. Damage to PP microplastics resulting from the bacterial degradation tests was confirmed using Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analyses, which showed the damage to the chemical bonds and the surface of the microplastic. These findings suggest that the Muara Angke bacterial consortium is a viable candidate for PP microplastic remediation while posing no risk to human health or the environment.
Graphical Abstract
... Polythene, renowned for its versatility and durability, is extensively used in various industries, including packaging, construction, and agriculture. However, its non-biodegradable nature poses a severe threat to ecosystems, wildlife, and human health [1][2][3][4][5]. In recent years, the detrimental effects of plastic pollution have spurred intensive research efforts to identify sustainable solutions for plastic waste management. ...
Plastic pollution, particularly from polythene (polyethylene), has emerged as a significant environmental concern worldwide. In response to this challenge, microbial perspectives on polythene biodegradation have garnered attention as potential solutions to mitigate plastic pollution. This article provides an overview of the mechanisms underlying microbial polythene biodegradation, including surface erosion, biofilm formation, metabolic pathways, synergistic interactions, and adaptation. Furthermore, it explores the diversity of polythene-degrading microorganisms and their roles in plastic degradation across different environments. Environmental factors influencing polythene biodegradation, such as temperature, pH, moisture, and nutrient availability, are discussed, along with strategies to optimize degradation rates. Biotechnological approaches, including microbial consortia development and genetic engineering, are highlighted as promising avenues to enhance polythene degradation efficiency. The article concludes with a discussion on the potential of microbial perspectives to address plastic pollution and outlines future research directions in this field.
... Understanding the interaction between microbes and polymers is critical in addressing plastic-related challenges. Many organisms, predominantly bacteria, have evolved strategies for the survival and decomposition of plastics (Oliveira et al., 2020). This study was focused on three different types of plastics, including Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Expanded Polystyrene (EPS), and linear Low-Density Polyethylene (LLDPE). ...
Plastic pollution has become a major environmental concern globally, and novel and eco-friendly approaches like bioremediation are essential to mitigate the impact. This study investigated the biodegradation of three common plastic types, LDPE, LLDPE, and EPS, by Zophobas atratus larvae. Over 36 days, the average larval consumption was found to be 24.04% LDPE, 20.01% EPS and 15.12% LLDPE. FTIR analysis confirmed plastic oxidation in the gut. Gut bacteria were selectively isolated and identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. These bacteria showed the ability to degrade specific plastic types confirmed by SEM. Whole genome sequencing revealed many enzymes, along with virulence factors, antibiotic-resistance genes, and rhamnolipid biosurfactant biosynthesis genes in both isolates. Rhamnolipid analysis and AST were performed. This study indicated Zophobas atratus larvae as potential LDPE, LLDPE, and EPS biodegradation agents. Additionally, the isolated strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa provide a more direct and eco-friendly solution for plastic degradation.
... Apart from abiotic and chemical degradation, bioremediation is a possible method to attain the microplastic degradation, and it is vital to look for new viable, time-saving, and cost-effective techniques. Thus, evolving microorganisms, notably from marine habitats, can be studied successfully, for the focussed identification of microorganisms, specialised for plastic biodegradation and developing new, inexpensive degradation methods (Oliveira et al. 2020). MPs can be broken down by various microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, etc. ...
Microplastics, originating from a variety of polymers, range in size from 1 μm to 5 mm. Because of their tiny size, reduced density, structure, and endurance in the surroundings, microplastics spread throughout the world via ocean currents. Microplastics are microscopic sized particles used in cosmetics, homes and industrial cleaning products, and have accumulated in aquatic as well as terrestrial ecosystem. Microplastics can be consumed by numerous marine animals by mistaking them as phytoplankton and these will accumulate in the food chain causing serious health problems. Thus, the degradation of these microplastics is inevitable and it can be done in two ways—abiotic and biotic. The abiotic degradation of microplastics can be done by thermal, mechanical, and chemical means, while in biotic degradation, microbial enzymes work to breakdown polymers. Several reports suggest the role of fungi and bacteria in degrading the microplastics but actinomycetes, a Gram-positive bacteria present ubiquitously help in the biodegradation process of microplastics. A little amount of actinomycetes can form a layer of biofilm around the polymer and aids in its degradation viz. Rhodococcus ruber. Rhodococcus rhodochrous degrades the microplastics after getting treatment with abiotic factors. Actinomyces in combination with bacteria changes the physical, chemical structure of the microplastics polluting the environment which leads to its degradation. Microplastic deterioration in the environment is triggered with a pre-treatment of nitric acid before applying on the actinomycetes Microbacterium paraoxydans. Numerous actinomycetes break down the micron sized polymers by secreting such enzymes which has high degrading capability. Some novel marine-derived actinomycetes like Streptomyces gougerotii, Micromonospora matsumotoense, and Nocardiopsis prasina degrade different microplastics and use them as a source of carbon to produce biodegradable plastics.
... However, the presence of biological pollutants and murky water can halt this procedure completely. Degrading and weak MPs may also collapse under mechanical stress (Yousif and Haddad 2013;Oliveira et al. 2020). ...
... However, artificial plastic bags and packaging supplies produce MPs with a film structure, while certain plastic-based products can degrade into foam-like particles of plastic. Different particles, aggressive blasting medium, and resin pellet system of transportation permeability are the main sources of sphere-type particles (Oliveira et al. 2020). ...
There is rising concern over the threat that microplastics pose to aquatic life. In addition to their capability to soak up tiny pollutants, they not merely assist in the accumulation of plastics in the natural world but can also assist in their distribution. Humans absorb microplastics at the tertiary stage of the dietary network, which follows aquatic organisms including fish and numerous crustaceans. Treatment facilities for wastewater (WWTP) have been found to be a substantial single origin of microplastics pollutants, especially in regard to fibres. The sources of plastic trash that enter WWTP include make-up and skin care products, wearable material such as garments, car tyres, and roadway paint. Microplastics may be discharged into reservoirs or combined with filth after entering the WWTP via household wastewater or drainage systems. In complex environmental matrices, microplastics can be examined, removed, filtered, determined, and characterized using a wide range of procedures. Microplastics can be identified by examining the chemical and physical characteristics of plastic particles that have been separated and rinsed out of a combination of inorganic and organic particles. There is a good chance that this identification will provide results that are false-positive or false while studying tiny microplastics. Today’s most common approach integrates thermal, chemical, and physiological assessments, such as microscopy and spectroscopic way. This chapter carefully examines the most recent data regarding the finding and prevalence of microplastics in WWTPs. These investigations provide a thorough analysis of all methods for locating and eliminating the microplastics.
... As part of the sunlight spectrum, ultraviolet (UV) radiation is cheaper, more accessible, and more environmentally friendly than other auxiliary promotion methods. UV radiation has been identified as the primary factor for plastic degradation in the natural environment [30]. MacLeod et al. [31] reported that under marine conditions, the photo-induced oxidation of PET is likely to occur, which leads to a reduction in molecular weight. ...
Nonmetallic ionic liquids (ILs) exhibit unique advantages in catalyzing poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) glycolysis, but usually require longer reaction times. We found that exposure to UV radiation can accelerate the glycolysis reaction and significantly reduce the reaction time. In this work, we synthesized five nonmetallic dibasic ILs, and their glycolysis catalytic activity was investigated. 1,8-diazabicyclo [5,4,0] undec-7-ene imidazole ([HDBU]Im) exhibited better catalytic performance. Meanwhile, UV radiation is used as a reinforcement method to improve the PET glycolysis efficiency. Under optimal conditions (5 g PET, 20 g ethylene glycol (EG), 0.25 g [HDBU]Im, 10,000 µW·cm−2 UV radiation reacted for 90 min at 185 °C), the PET conversion and BHET yield were 100% and 88.9%, respectively. Based on the UV-visible spectrum, it was found that UV radiation can activate the C=O in PET. Hence, the incorporation of UV radiation can considerably diminish the activation energy of the reaction, shortening the reaction time of PET degradation. Finally, a possible reaction mechanism of [HDBU]Im-catalyzed PET glycolysis under UV radiation was proposed.
... Zhou et al. [16] also reported desirable results after observing that the overall quality of the Rupia red melon cultivar was maintained better after storing in PLA than in PET containers at 10°C during 10 days of storage. Although PLA is not soluble in water, marine microbes under the phylum Actinobacteria such as Saccharothrix waywayandensis, Kibdelosporangium aridum, and Actinomadura sp. can easily degrade PLA into water and carbon dioxide [17]. The general steps in the biodegradation process are shown in Figure 3. ...
Currently, petrochemical plastics dominate the food service industry due to their good mechanical properties and barrier against heat, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. This widespread use is not only harmful to humans but also to the ecosystem as synthetic plastics disrupt ecological balance and deplete petroleum-based oil resources. Researchers and manufacturers are continuously addressing this problem by developing bio-based alternatives that provide numerous advantages including structural flexibility, biodegradability, and effective barrier properties. However, the high cost of production and unavailability of equipment for batch processing impede the potential for widespread manufacturing. Natural fibers mixed with bio-based adhesives derived from plants provide one of the biggest potential sources of bio-based materials for the food container industry. Not only does this address the issue of high raw material cost but it also has the potential to become sustainable once processing steps have been optimized. In this review, the current findings of several research related to the production of bio-based disposable food containers, packaging, and composites made from bio-based materials and bio-based adhesives are critically discussed. Several properties and characteristics important to the production of food service containers and primary packaging, as well as the existing challenges and future perspectives, are also highlighted.
