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Characteristics of Nonmigrants and International Migrants
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Although Latin American migrants to the United States, particularly Mexicans, are typically portrayed as poor and uneducated, some, such as Peruvians, are disproportionately well educated compared to those who never left their countries. This article examines who emigrates and why by comparing migrants’ selectivity from Mexico and Peru. Using the P...
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... In comparison to what is observed in the international evidence, where remittances promote informal jobs (Amuedo-Dorantes and Pozo, 2006), Peruvian remittances cause the opposite effect. Thus, in the case of Peru, given the particular characteristics of migrants and their family's preferences, there are no incentives for job creation, even in the self-employment sector, since many of them use international remittances as a way to maintain their privileged position in Peruvian society (Takenaka and Pren, 2010). This feature is maintained even when nearly 70% of the country's population is informal and where only half of the population has access to the financial system (INEI, 2021a). ...
... The study of the effect of remittances on the labour market in Peru is an interesting case, since, unlike most studies of this type, Peruvian migration and families receiving remittances come from households in the upper quintiles in the income distribution (Torres-Zorrilla, 2008;Takenaka and Pren, 2010;Salas, 2014). In addition, Peruvian remittances -in comparison to the rest of Latin America-are more unequal and may reinforce class distinctions (Fajnzylber and López, 2008;Paerregaard, 2014). ...
International remittances are a relevant source of income in developing countries, with important implications for the labour market of recipient countries. Peruvian international migration is a particular case of Latin America, since it tends to be concentrated in middle-and high-income households and in highly educated people, who display particular preferences in relation to the labour market. Using data from 2004 to 2019, we analysed the impact of remittances on employment, hours worked, and wages of Peruvian workers. Our results show that remittances reduce labour participation by 9.8 percentage points (pp). On average, the effect is greater among dependent workers than self-employed workers (-7.5 pp versus -3 pp). Similarly, we observed an increase in hourly income in both types of work (10.1% and 65%, respectively). In this sense, the Peruvian case offers a new perspective on the effect of remittances on the labour market, where despite having most of its labour force in informal jobs and self-employment, it does not encourage employment in those sectors, as occurred in previous studies.
... 11 This article complements Howard's (2020) monograph, the first comprehensive English-language account of music and dance in North Korea, and Sung's (2021) doctoral dissertation, the sole study of music among the North and South Korean diaspora in 7. Song and Bell (2019, 9), citing a 2012 report in the Chungang ilbo (Central Daily News), state that 46.7 percent of North Koreans in South Korea were living below the poverty line and received government subsistence support. 8. Also known as "two-step migration," "remigration," or "on-migration," secondary migration has become a common feature of population movement globally, often for economic opportunity (Finch et al. 2009, 4), but also reflecting a desire to accumulate other forms of capital (after Takenaka and Pren 2007) or to access other benefits such as settlement rights (Krassoi-Peach 2013) and better education (Kim 2016 11. Note that the Korean diaspora in Japan supports music groups who perform northern genres; in one such group, the kȏmun'go continues to be prominent (see Ko and Terada 2018). ...
This article reflects on the knowledge and experience of North Korean music and dance among North Koreans who now reside in Britain. In particular, we explore their memories from before they escaped the isolated so-called socialist paradise. North Koreans mostly arrived in Britain between 2004 and 2008; they arrived as refugees and applied for asylum. Although the last four decades has seen much ethnomusicological research on music and migration, we remain mindful of Reyes Schramm’s argument about the importance of studying refugee music to better understand music traditions. As with other parts of the world, though, today there are a multitude of online and published materials on North Korea, including on music and dance, most emanating from the country. Given that there are few if any opportunities to conduct fieldwork inside the country, researchers typically use the available materials to construct accounts. But to what extent do the memories of North Koreans who are resident in Britain contrast and challenge the online and published materials?
... In broader research on skillselective migration, the role of SC must be compared to different types of migrants. In general, educated migrants rely less on social networks, and the networks they use are qualitatively different, e.g., more extensive and with fewer ties (see the literature review by Takenaka & Pren, 2010). More specifically, social networks serve to explain why only some subjects choose to move, precisely due to the influence of the society of origin; thus, when the aforementioned networks exist, they influence low-skilled individuals more. ...
... For example, Kaplan et al. (2016) found that social connectedness and social norms play a relevant role in retaining knowledge workers in Saxony (Germany), while Darchen and Tremblay (2010) found that social networks are an important factor influencing the retention of students in Montreal and Ottawa (Canada). Other studies have suggested that educated migrants tend to rely less on SC and its related networks than less educated subjects (Takenaka & Pren, 2010). ...
Internal migration in Italy has been characterised by deep changes in its composition, because of the growing share of high-skilled migrants (the emigration of which contributes to widening the internal brain drain) and the decreasing proportion of low-skilled migrants. Furthermore, recent interest in the literature in the role played by noneconomic elements in affecting migration decisions has highlighted the importance of a nonpecuniary factor, namely social capital (SC). For these reasons, this paper empirically investigates the role played by SC in interprovincial selective migration, considering migrants according to two education levels using data on 103 Italian provinces (2004–2012). The main findings reveal that provincial SC mainly contributes to reducing the migration flows of low-skilled individuals, albeit while also deterring the emigration of high-skilled individuals. Control variables confirm that better income conditions represent an important determinant of high-skilled migrants most likely because they seek to earn more, while better socioeconomic conditions such as labour market efficiency mostly influence those with a lower level of education.
... Between 1990 and 2015, almost three million Peruvians (9.5 percent of the population) left the country (INEI 2016, 18). In 2015, women represented over half of the total migrant population (INEI 2016, 28), which was predominantly composed of people born in Lima, the capital city, (INEI 2016, 35) and of Peruvians with higher education credentials (Takenaka and Pren 2010). Despite the imposition of entry visas in the early 1990s (until 2017), the Peruvian population in Switzerland grew from 492 in 1980 to 10,075 in 2016 (SFSO 2017c), with recent increases fuelled by onward migration by Peruvians previously settled in Spain. ...
Wandel und Persistenz der Geschlechterverhältnisse in Arbeitswelt, Familie und Politik bedeuten für Männer* und Männlichkeit(en) spezifische Möglichkeiten und Herausforderungen. Zur Debatte steht, was sich gegenwärtig überhaupt verändert. Welche Entwicklungen werden ausgemacht? Welche Potenziale, Widersprüche und Spannungen – für Männer* und für die Gesellschaft – tun sich auf oder entstehen dadurch? Wie haben sich Männlichkeiten historisch in der Schweiz überhaupt gestaltet und ausgebildet?
Das Buch bündelt Forschungsbeiträge zu Männlichkeit(en) in der Schweiz, die zu einer kritischen Zeitdiagnose beitragen. Dabei werden Perspektiven aus verschiedenen Disziplinen – der Geschlechterforschung, Soziologie, Sozialen Arbeit, Geschichte, Literaturwissenschaft, Psychologie und Migrationsforschung – eingebracht.
... In fact, this pattern is quite predictable, as the role of specific historical connections between sending and receiving countries in directing migration flows is well established in the literature [3,32]. Existing network ties also play an important role in decision-making on the specific direction of migration [3,33,34]. According to the 'network theory' of migration, the presence of a social or ethnic network in the country of destination facilitates immigrants' integration in the host country, as they benefit from the pre-existing network's social support and help in finding employment [35]. ...
... Return or circular migration of economically active migrants acquiring new skills, a wider outlook, and new money are the main mechanisms through which migration can benefit the sending country [39,47]. Self-selected emigration is not favourable in this respect, as educated migrants send fewer remittances to their home countries and return home less frequently than less-educated work migrants [33]. Educated individuals emigrate not only because of limited career opportunities in the home country, but also because of political and economic instability, legal insecurity and dissatisfaction with the social, moral and psychological conditions in the country [18,33]. ...
... Self-selected emigration is not favourable in this respect, as educated migrants send fewer remittances to their home countries and return home less frequently than less-educated work migrants [33]. Educated individuals emigrate not only because of limited career opportunities in the home country, but also because of political and economic instability, legal insecurity and dissatisfaction with the social, moral and psychological conditions in the country [18,33]. ...
This study tests the hypothesis whether long-term out-migration was self-selective among survivors of the devastating 1988 Spitak earthquake in Armenia. Migrants are usually not a random sample of their original population, but self-selected in some systematic way for better competitiveness in the host country’s labor-market. This phenomenon is known as favourable self-selection, which may lead to loss of human capital, economic stagnation and demographic ‘swamping’ of the sending country. While typical for economic migration, self-selection is considered less common for post-disaster emigration. In this study, characteristics of emigrants and non-migrants were compared in a post-earthquake cohort and the determinants of emigration identified using Cox proportional hazards regression analysis. A follow-up study in 2012 successfully traced 80.3% (n=1423) of the initial cohort. The cumulative rate of permanent emigration during 23 years of follow-up was 22.1%. The main destination country was Russia (81.0%). The fitted model identified that younger age, male gender, higher education, and sociability were among factors independently predicting out-migration, thus, confirming the hypothesis concerning the favourable self-selectivity of the emigration. Importantly, unemployment and loss of housing were strong push factors for out-migration. Hence, providing proper housing and job opportunities to disaster survivors could reduce their likelihood of emigrating and prevent detrimental effects of the loss of human capital for small countries with limited human resources, like Armenia. In addition to short-term activities for disaster relief, governments must build migration-preventing policies into their medium- and long-term disaster-area rehabilitation programmes if the country in question is negatively affected by out-migration.
... Ryo, E. (2013) finds that perceptions of certainty of apprehension and severity of punishment are not significant determinants of the intent to migrate illegally; however, perceptions of the availability of Mexican jobs and the dangers of border crossing are significant determinants of these intentions. Takenaka and Pren (2010) compare the determinants of out-migration from Mexico and Peru. The results show that the difference in migrant selectivity is not so much attributable to migrants' legal status, urban versus rural origins, demographic background, or geographic distance. ...
The number of Mexican migrants in the USA has become tripled between 1990 and 2017. This surge in Mexican migrants has attracted a lot of attention not only from policymakers but also from economists. We use a set of pre-immigration variables for more than 25,000 individuals from Mexico to predict (i): whether individuals from Mexico migrate to the USA (ii) if they do so, how long they stay in the USA. We use 8 machine learning techniques and we conclude that we can predict correctly 72% of Mexicans who migrate to the USA and 93% of Mexicans who do not migrate to the USA. However, by using only pre-immigration variables our model does not perform well in predicting how long Mexican migrants will stay in the USA. We can only predict 35% of the variation in the number of months that Mexican migrants will stay in the USA.
... Physical capital is the development of different infrastructures such as road, home, and production assets (Takenaka & Pren, 2010). Besides, the economic gain from protected areas will help people move to self-finance assets such as business, truck, harvesting equipment which enhances the physical capital of livelihood diversification (Nawrotzki, Hunter, & Dickinson, 2012). ...
This study aims at investigating the impact of tourism components on livelihood diversification outcomes or assets in Ethiopian biosphere reserves. A cross-sectional study was employed using descriptive and explanatory research design where a mixed research approach was used to collect data from a total of 305 multistage stratified random samples (rural and urban households). To meet the research objectives primary data sources (self-administered questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, observations) and secondary data sources were used. The hierarchical regression model was employed using SPSS version 23. The effect of each tourism component had varied effects on each livelihood outcomes and it was in favor of tourism enterprises than rural household's stratum. Integrated and diversified livelihood approaches should be the focus of policymakers and researchers that shall involve communities in the development process to make tourism as a pathway for livelihood diversification.
... We put a, b, and c into the "good" category, and d and e into "not good" category) of the young people. These variables have been shown in the literature to be strong predictors and play different roles in explaining migration decisions [23,[68][69][70][71][72][73][74]: age is significantly and negatively associated with migration [71,75,76]; women are less likely to migrate than men [77,78]; the unmarried are more likely to move than married people [79,80]; the unemployed young people are more mobile in both sending and receiving countries [81,82]; migrants are healthier than both non-migrants in the origin country and native residents in the destination country [83], because transitions into another culture and work environment are easier for the healthy [80]. ...
This study examines the migration intentions of young people in Egypt before and after the 2011 revolution, driven by three sets of factors: (1) individual demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, (2) household characteristics, and (3) community characteristics and political and civic participation. Logistic regression models are applied to study the determinants of intentions to live, study, or work abroad among young Egyptians (defined as individuals aged 18 to 29), using data from the Survey of Young People in Egypt (SYPE) conducted in 2009 (N = 8488) and in 2014 (N = 5885). The surveys are nationally representative, covering all governorates in Egypt. The analysis indicates that respondents' age, gender, marital status, and employment status play a significant role in shaping migration intentions. After the 2011 revolution, the effects are dependent upon economic and institutional conditions. The employment status affects the migration intention of young people in 2009; but the effects become insignificant in 2014. Moreover, respondents who have participated in political and voluntary activities are more likely to express migration intentions. Pollution levels in the community are also positively correlated with the intention to migrate. The results indicate that those who expressed migration intentions are a selective group in terms of demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Our findings have policy relevance because knowledge and understanding of migration intentions and their determinants can be used to assess and develop scenarios about future migration.
... Between 1990 and 2015, almost three million Peruvians (9.5% of the population) left the country, mostly destined for the USA, which hosts a third (32%) of Peruvians abroad. Women represented over half of the total migrant population (INEI, 2016, p. 28), which was predominantly composed of people born in Lima, the capital city (INEI, 2016, p. 35) and of Peruvians with higher education credentials (Takenaka & Pren, 2010). Interestingly, the feminisation of Peruvian migration concerns a highly-skilled female workforce: 49% and 53% of migrants who declared themselves university students and professionals were women (INEI, 2016, p. 26). ...
Remittances are sent and received to maintain family livelihoods, to cover the education costs of younger members, to provide care services for ageing family members, to support business ventures, etc. Although a growing body of literature assesses the role of remittances in the migration-development nexus, past studies have rarely focused on time-sensitive dimensions such as family life-cycles and life-course stages. In addition, a dynamic analysis of social stratification based on gender, age, citizenship status and class within and between these families serves to enrich a transnational perspective on remittances. Life-course perspectives represent a suitable framework for tracing money circulation across multiple national settings and dynamic processes of social stratification. Beyond the common image of remittances being sent from host to home countries, Peruvians in Switzerland also receive money from their home country.
... networks. Just as Massey & Espinosa (1997) and Takenaka & Pren (2010) find for recent periods, migrating to a county with a large Mexican community might have increased the net benefits of migration for the average immigrant. Therefore, for more than one hundred years, immigrant networks have represented a selfperpetuating social asset that provides information and assistance, which reduces the costs and risks of migrating. ...
... States migration.Angelucci (2015Angelucci ( , 2012;Chort & De La Rupelle (2016);Donato (1993);Hanson & Spilimbergo (1999);Massey (1987);Massey & Espinosa (1997);and Takenaka & Pren (2010) analyze the forces driving fluctuations in legal and illegal migration flows from Mexico. They evaluate factors relaxing financial constraints to migration (cash transfers and household resources), structural conditions (US-Mexico wage gap, border enforcement and violence), random shocks (droughts), and factors derived from the historical persistence of the migration flow (immigrant networks and reunification processes). ...
There is a lack of cliometric literature addressing the characteristics of Mexican migration during the Age of Mass migration (1850–1914). To fill this void, I analyze an original data set—the Mexican Border Crossing Records (MBCRs) publication N° A3365—to disentangle the initial mechanics of Mexican migration in the early twentieth century. I first offer a historical overview on Mexican migration to the United States in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, I introduce these novel micro data that record individual characteristics of migrants that crossed the Mexico-US border from 1906 to 1908. In Chapter 3, I address the initial determinants of the Mexican-American migration stream. I use the migrant’s location of last residence and final destination to identify migration corridors at the local level (migration streams between Mexican municipalities and US counties). In addition, I provide a quantitative assessment of the push and pull factors that may explain differences in migration intensity across corridors. These factors include the US-Mexico wage gap, market potentials, living standards and access to railways. In Chapter 4, I use the migrant’s height—a proxy for physical productivity of labor—to quantify the selectivity of Mexican migration. In addition, I exploit the Panic of 1907 as a natural experiment of history to study the speed that migrant self-selection adjust and change to both environmental and economic factors. This financial crisis provides me with exogenous variation in height to evaluate if unexpected shocks affecting the demand of immigrant workers can induce short-run changes in migrant self-selection. To explain shifts in selection patterns, I focus on labor institutions as mechanism of adjustment. Specifically, I study the enganche, a system of labor recruiting that neutralized mobility and job-search costs. In Chapter 5, I exploit the reported locations of birth, last residence and destination to classify migrants based on their chosen migration method: direct or stage migration. The micro data reveal that forty percent of the migrants moved within Mexico before crossing the border. I estimate correlations between stage migration and potential wage at the destination controlling for the immigrants’ age, literacy, sex, marital status and birthplace. In Chapter 6, I offer some concluding remarks. My findings expand our knowledge about the initial patterns of Mexican migration using micro data not analyzed previously. They show that in the early twentieth century, the decision to migrate was a function of diverse forces, which effects and magnitudes varied across Mexican regions. Also, Mexican migration was characterized by an intermediate or positive selection, and labor institutions involved in the migration process shaped migrant self-selection. Finally, Mexicans used stage migration to reach the US border, and it was associated with a significant wage premium at the destination.
