Figure - available from: Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems
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Changes of provincial statistical results of K output in 1980 (a) and 2010 (b); CQ was not included in 1980 due to no data
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Great changes have been happened over the past 30 years in chemical fertilizer input in China, and thus a gross potassium (K) budget model established to evaluate the variation of farmland K balance for China in 1980 and 2010 at the national scale is important. Results indicated that total K input in 1980 was 6.8 million tonnes, in which chemical f...
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... Although the mineralogy (both K-feldspars and phyllosilicate clays), K fixation potential (at least the factors thereof), redox potential in saturated paddy rice systems (redox role in 2:1 phyllosilicate K fixation) have an important effect on soil K dynamics, appropriate K replenishment by chemical or organic fertilizers is an essential component for crop productivity and soil K management Liu et al., 2022). However, the effect sizes of different K fertilizers on soil K concentration are affected by agronomic management, soil properties, and climate (Liu et al., 2017b). Moreover, understanding the K spatio-temporal variation of K in paddy soil is essential to enhance K fertilizer efficiency and conserve K fertilizer resources during agronomic management (Deng et al., 2020). ...
... Organic fertilizer with K can comprehensively regulate soil K availability through crop roots and soil structure improvement . The K uptake of crops increases with K fertilization due to higher K-supplying capacity of soil Sui et al., 2015;Liu et al., 2017). In an Acrisol, adding K fertilizer increased the K-supplying capacity of soil (Das et al., 2019). ...
Subtropical Acrisols have low soil organic carbon (SOC) and potassium (K) availability. However, the relationship between K distribution of aggregates and SOC levels is unclear. Five soil samples were collected from a long-term fertilization experiment in an Acrisol. Different K fertilization treatments included CK (without any fertilizer), ZK (zero rate of chemical K fertilizer), KF (conventional rate of chemical K fertilizer added to ZK treatment), KM (KF treatment including the application of fresh pig manure, and KS (KF treatment with half of crop straw returned to the field). Then, an incubation experiment was conducted in which different rates of glucose were added to attain 5 increased levels in SOC with 0, 10%, 20%, 50%, and 100% in the CK, ZK, KF, KM, and KS treatments. Compared with no glucose addition, glucose addition improved these > 2 mm aggregates by 9.16%− 104.19% among all soils. With increased SOC percentage, the > 2 mm aggregate increased. A non-linear equation indicated that there were significant correlations between > 2 mm aggregates and SOC content in KF, KM, and KS soils. The exchangeable K (EK) and non-exchangeable K (NEK) contents of > 2 mm aggregates were highest in KM soil, followed by KS and KF soils, while CK and ZK soils were the lowest. The linear equations indicated that the EK and NEK stock of > 2 mm aggregates could be increased by 8.41–9.10 kg ha⁻¹ and 15.73–20.65 kg ha⁻, respectively, in all K fertilized soils, when SOC was increased by 1 g kg⁻¹. The slopes of linear equations also showed that the growth rate for NEK stock of > 2 mm aggregates in KM soil (20.65 kg ha⁻¹) was higher than those of KS and KF soils (15.73 and 17.59 kg ha⁻¹). Additionally, the slopes of linear equations indicated that the growth rate for proportions of EK and NEK stock of > 2 mm aggregates in KM soil (1.14% and 1.64%) were lower than those in KS soil (2.22% and 2.28%). Combined with CK, ZK, KF, KM, and KS soils, the proportion of EK and NEK stock of > 2 mm aggregates increased by 1.62% and 2.32% along with increased SOC by 1 g kg⁻¹. Therefore, the EK and NEK stock of > 2 mm aggregates increased through glucose addition in the Acrisol. However, these increases varied by fertilization treatments, which caused different SOC and K levels.
... To avoid soil K deficiency and improve crop productivity, it is important to balance the soil K supply with the crop K requirement when applying fertilizers (Amanullah et al., 2016). Negative K balances in paddy soils are frequently reported from India (Alim et al., 2014), Bangladesh (Islam and Muttaleb, 2016), and China (Li et al., 2014;Liu et al., 2017), and particularly from some tropical regions where the soil K contents and stocks are lower than other regions and K has easily leached from these tropical soils after heavy rains (Lloyd et al., 2015;Vitousek and Jordan, 1987;Yavitt et al., 2011). K losses from the soil, primarily by leaching, are estimated at 2.4 million tonnes from arable farmland in China (Sheldrick et al., 2003), and similar losses are reported in New Zealand (Kirkman et al., 2010), Germany (Kayser and Isselstein, 2005), and Australia (Rengel and Damon, 2008). ...
Southern China’s paddy soils are poor in potassium (K) and rich in iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) oxides, both of which are affected by fertilizer application. However, the response of soil K budget to long-term K fertilization and Fe and Al oxides remains unclear, especially in the subsurface horizons in different soil types. Here, four long-term fertilization treatments (no fertilizer, CK; inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, NP; NPK; and the combined NPK and manure, NPKM) were selected to determine the effects of K input and different forms of Fe and Al oxides on soil K status at two soil layers (0–20, surface; and 20–40 cm, subsurface) in red (Ferralsols) and purple (Cambisols) paddy soils across China. Overall, treatments where K fertilizer application was withheld had lower surface soil exchangeable K (EK), non-exchangeable K (NEK), and total K contents than treatments applied with K fertilizer. In contrast, the treatment including K with manure fertilizer increased EK and NEK contents. Regardless of fertilization regimes, the contents of EK and NEK in both soil depths of purple soil were significantly higher than those in their corresponding depths of red soil. Moreover, there were significantly lower EK and NEK contents in the subsurface layer than those in the surface layer of red soil, while no significant differences were observed in purple soil. A positive correlation was obtained between K balances and soil EK contents (P < 0.05) and the slopes of linear regressions in red soil was higher than that in purple soil. A three-way ANOVA showed that the lone and interactive effects of experimental site, fertilization regime, and soil depth significantly influenced the contents of Fe and Al oxides in both soils. The application of NPKM can inhibit the decrease of free Fe and Al oxides in the surface layer of soil and increase the amorphous and chelated Fe and Al oxides, especially in red soil. Redundancy analysis showed that the amorphous Fe and Al oxides were the most important factors for regulating surface soil EK content. The free and chelated oxides were the most important factors for regulating NEK contents in red and purple soils, respectively, particularly in subsurface soil. Our results imply that the combined application of inorganic fertilizer and manure is a viable strategy for improving soil K availability by increasing K balance and regulating the contents and forms of Fe and Al oxides in different depths of paddy soil.
... A comprehensive assessment of soil K balances between 1980 and 2010 was undertaken by Liu et al. (2017b) using 31 provincial datasets from the China Agriculture Statistical Report for 1981 and 2011. The K consumption from fertilizers, human and livestock manure, straw return to field, cake manure, deposition, irrigation, seeds, crop removal, and K loss from soils were calculated with provincial data and parameters from refereed literature. ...
... The average PNBI K in the SE region increased steadily Spatial distributions of PNBI K in China's agricultural land in (a) 1980 and (b) 2010. Adapted fromLiu et al. (2017b) ...
Estimating nutrient mass balances using information on nutrient additions and removals generates useful, practical information on the nutrient status of a soil or area. A negative input–output balance of nutrients in the soil results when the crop nutrient removal and nutrient losses to other sinks become higher than the nutrient inputs into the system. Potassium (K) input–output balance varies among regions that have different climates, soil types, cropping systems, and cropping intensity. This chapter illustrates the farm-gate K balances in major production areas of the world and their impacts on native K fertility and crop yields. On-farm and on-station research examples show significant negative K balances in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, while China, the USA, Brazil, and countries of the Latin America Southern Cone highlighted continued requirement of location-specific K application to maintain crop yields and soil K fertility status at optimum levels.
... Manure fertilizer represents N input to soil from dung and urine of humans and livestock, cake fertilizer and straw nitrogen returned to the field (exclusion of green fertilizer). Details of parameters and the returning rates of humans and livestock based on previous studies are listed in Table 3 ( Wang et al. 2006;Li and Jin 2011;Zhao and Yin 2016;Liu et al. 2017;Liu 2018). Parameters for cake fertilizer and straw nitrogen are shown in Table S2 and Table S3, respectively. ...
... 13.3, 26.3, 37.9 and 52.7 kg P/ha in 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995, 1999, respectively (Lu, 2003Wang et al., 2014), consistent with the results of this study. ...
Quantifying temporal and spatial variation of soil phosphorous (P) inputs, output and balance across Chinese arable land is needed for better P management strategies. Here we address this challenge by using a soil P budget to analyze the soil P balance in arable land across the whole of China, for the period 1980‐2012. Results indicated that the total P input to soil increased from 22.5 kg P/ha in 1980 to 79.1 kg P/ha in 2012. However, the total P output from soil only increased from 17.9 kg P/ha in 1980 to 36.9 kg P/ha in 2012. Therefore, the average net soil P surplus in China increased from 4.6 kg P/ha in 1980 to 42.1 kg P/ha in 2012. The study found great variation in soil P balance across different regions. Soil P balance varied between regions with the order of southeast (SE) > north central (NC) and the middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River (MLYR) > southwest (SW) > northwest (NW) > northeast (NE). Phosphorus accumulated in agricultural soil across China could theoretically meet crop P demands for approximately 4.8 ‐ 12.0 years, depending on the bioavailability of P stored in soils. Increasing the return rates of manure and straw could substantially reduce the demand for fertilizer P. This paper represents a basis for more targeted, regionally informed P fertilizer recommendations in Chinese soils.
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... Otro aspecto que se ha explorado para mejorar los rendimientos en el cultivo de frutales es el suministro balanceado de nutrimentos, en particular del potasio (K), ya que este nutrimento tiene un importante rol en la apertura y cierre de estomas, turgencia celular, transporte de carbohidratos y activación de múltiples enzimas, procesos que inciden en rendimiento y calidad del fruto (Liu et al., 2017). Actualmente se tienen conocimiento sobre la importancia del K en la fisiología del litchi (Singh et al., 2012). ...
... Diversas investigaciones han establecido que el anillado en árboles de litchi y otros frutales, provoca una acumulación de carbohidratos (Gaete, 2007), lo que probablemente provocó un aumento en la demanda de K, ya que dicho nutrimento interviene en los procesos de síntesis y transporte de los azúcares y almidones (Liu et al., 2017), razón por la cual aquellos tratamientos con anillado que recibieron mayores niveles de K, fueron los que expresaron mayores rendimientos de frutos. ...
El litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn) es una fruta demandada internacionalmente, cultivada en varios estados de México con precios rentables, aunque con bajos rendimientos. El objetivo de la investigación fue determinar el efecto del potasio y del anillado en el rendimiento y calidad del fruto del litchi cv Brewster. Se estableció un experimento en bloques completamente al azar, con arreglo factorial 3 x 2 con 10 repeticiones. El factor A consistió en tres niveles de potasio (300, 600, 900 g por árbol-1). El factor B en dos niveles de anillado en las ramas (ausencia y presencia), por lo que se evaluaron seis tratamientos resultantes. Los resultados indican que los factores A y B, así como su interacción, son determinante para incrementar el rendimiento, aunque afectan poco a la calidad del fruto. Los niveles del factor A y B que tienen mayor efecto sobre el rendimiento, son 900 g de potasio y la presencia del anillado respectivamente, por lo que el tratamiento seis que combina ambos factores, registra el mayor rendimiento. Las dosis bajas de potasio producen bajos rendimientos, mientras que el anillado por sí solo lo duplica. Los factores A y B presentan efectos individuales para las variables pérdida de peso (PPF) y pH del fruto, aunque el efecto de la interacción solo se presenta para el pH. Se concluye que el aporte de 900 g árbol-1 de potasio y el anillado en arboles de litchi, individualmente y combinado afectan positivamente el rendimiento y poco a la calidad del fruto.
... For example, the amount of straw is a required indicator, but it can only be calculated by multiplying grain crop production by a literature survey-based conversion factor (the ratio of grain to straw), which is distinguishing for different crops. The parameters needed in this model for K balance calculations in Chinese farmland were explained in Liu et al. [39]; spatial variation of parameters was estimated by region. ...
... The soil K balance model included the following inputs: chemical fertilizer, organic manure, atmospheric dry and wet deposition, irrigation and crop seeds (K 2 O, similarly hereinafter) [39]. In detail, the organic fertilizer resources were categorized by human and animal manure, straw and cake manure. ...
... The organic manure resources mainly include human and livestock manure, straw return and cake manure. The human and livestock manure including the parameters of livestock feeding period, daily excretion, K 2 O content and application rates to field were listed in Table 1 [39][40][41]. The quantity of crop straw was calculated through grain yields and the ratio of grain to straw for each type of crops and the K contents in straw were collected from published studies ( Table 2) [42]. ...
Linking potassium (K) balance to soil fertility creates a valuable indicator for sustainability assessment in agricultural land-use systems. It is crucial for the efficient use of K resources, food security and resource sustainability to realize soil K balance status in China. Therefore, temporal and spatial changes of K balance for farmland in China from 1980 to 2015 were analyzed at national and regional levels using statistical data and related parameters. At the national scale, K input increased from 6.78 Mt K2O in 1980 to 23.44 Mt K2O in 2015 with an average annual increment of 0.48 Mt K2O, and output changed from 8.10 Mt in 1980 to 21.31 Mt in 2015 with an average annual increment of 0.38 Mt K2O as well. On average, K balance was -24.17, -5.92, 21.31 and 19.50 kg K2O ha⁻¹ in 1980s, 1990s, 2000s and 2010s, respectively. Moreover, the average balance of six regions was considerably different which were -21.37, 1.25, 13.70, -22.79, 99.22 and 7.18 kg K2O ha⁻¹ from 1980 to 2015. The potassium use efficiency (KUE) decreased with time which were 127.09, 104.35, 87.69 and 89.69% in 1980s, 1990s, 2000s and 2010s, respectively, and the decline of slope could also reflect the variation tendency of KUE. Great variation of K balance across different regions demonstrated that fertilizer application and management practices need to be adjusted to local conditions.
