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Source publication
Immunological changes in elite adolescent female athletes during Taekwondo competitions were investigated on-field. 6 female athletes (16.7 ± 0.8 year-old) volunteered and performed 5 bouts of demonstration Taekwondo competitions simulating real tournaments in intensity, duration, and break-time intervals on the same day. Blood samples were taken b...
Citations
... The main objectives of sports testing include training prescription and assessment (77), athlete progress monitoring (26,56), athlete ranking and talent selection (77). In a systematic review, Bridge et al. (14) found that the VȮ 2 max of taekwondo athletes was mainly determined through direct measurements using Incremental Test (IT) protocols in different modalities (treadmill and cycle ergometer) or through estimations using the Multistage Shuttle Run Test (SRT) (10,41). Based on this, taekwondo athletes show a wide range of VȮ 2 max values from 30.7 6 5.5 (51) to 63.2 6 6.1 mL$kg 21 $min 21 (24), probably because of differences related to sex, competitive level, success, experience, weight categories, training phase, and testing modality in the different taekwondo populations investigated (14). ...
To sustain the specific intermittent activity of an official taekwondo match, high demands are placed on both aerobic and anaerobic metabolisms. Studies determining the contributions of the energy systems during the simulated match found a 62–74% participation of the oxidative system. In parallel with the widespread use of general tests for assessing endurance in taekwondo athletes, research has focused on developing sport-specific tests. This narrative review aims to present the sport-specific tests available in the current literature for assessing endurance in taekwondo. It summarizes and analyzes the development and validation process of each test. Additionally, we provide practical applications, recommendations, and future perspectives as guidelines for assessment, with the ultimate objective of encouraging scientists, coaches, and physical trainers to use sport-specific methodologies. All the tests described in this review represent alternative methodologies to classical general tests. They are easily accessible, noninvasive, simple to conduct, and specifically designed for assessing endurance in taekwondo athletes. However, it is important to consider that each test has specific methodological and application characteristics and a different development and validation path. These factors must be taken into consideration when deciding which test to use.
... Del Giacco et al. indicated that an increase in NK cells enhances the cytolytic capacity for greater protection against diseases, while a decrease may indicate greater susceptibility to infections [48]. This is due to the sensitivity that NK cells have to the stress induced by physical exercise [49,50]. Similarly, the results of this study showed that NK cell levels tended to increase with regular exercise training. ...
Simple Summary
The impact of exercise on the immune system is pleiotropic, and our knowledge about how exercise-triggered mechanisms affect cancer risk and progression is incomplete. Although several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the protective effect of exercise against cancer, there is a lack of experimental evidence in cancer survivors, which is related to immunity. In addition, no specific mechanism has been proposed for exercise-induced suppression of cancer cells through improving innate immunity in ovarian cancer survivors. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of regular exercise training on physical fitness, including body composition and innate immunocytes, in ovarian cancer survivors.
Abstract
Exercise is known to help the immune function of cancer survivors after cancer cell removal, but there is little information about the effect of exercise on ovarian cancer survivors. We conducted this study to investigate the effects of exercise training on the physical fitness and innate immunity of ovarian cancer survivors (OCS). Twenty-seven OCS between forty-two and sixty-one years of age volunteered for this study. The participants were divided into a control group (COG, n = 15) and an exercise group (EXG, n = 12). The mean (SD) age was 51.07 (5.67) years, and the mean post-operation period was 45.96 (5.88) months. EXG participated in regular exercise training 6 days a week for 12 weeks. Body weight, fat mass, and body mass index of EXE were significantly decreased compared with those of COG. The muscle mass in EXE was increased compared to that of COG. Physical fitness factors showed positive changes in EXG compared to COG. We found that exercise training enhanced lymphocyte and neutrophil counts of leucocytes and total natural killer (NK) and natural killer T (NKT) cell counts of lymphocytes through improved body composition and physical fitness after 12 weeks. Moreover, we found that improved innate immune cells through the exercise program were achieved through an increase in NKG2D+NK receptors and a decrease in KIR2DL3+NK receptors in OCS.
... However, intense or prolonged exercise training bouts and high-level competitions have been connected with exercise-induced immune suppression (Campbell & Turner, 2018), and consequently such intense physical activities might lead to a post-exercise immunosuppression and the "open window" hypothesis as a paradigm (Gray et al., 2013) for several hours after exercise training (Ahmadinejad et al., 2014). Moreover, athletes may experience immunological and physiological changes such as accumulation of some metabolites, e.g., pro-inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species (ROS), lactate, and a temporary suppression of the immune system functioning, which can be associated with elevated susceptibility to systemic inflammation, increasing the risk of RTIs in athletes (Ahmadinejad et al., 2014;Bridge et al., 2018;Lee et al., 2012). ...
Use of some sports supplements can inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2), a receptor for the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), as reviewed through molecular docking and sequent molecular dynamics (MD) simulations against this condition. The crystal structures of ACE2 receptors of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV, applied in docking analysis, were taken from the Protein Data Bank (PDB). The receptors were then prepared using the Molecular Operating Environment (MOE), as a drug-discovery software platform for docking. Supplements such as quercetin and beta glucan (β-glucan) were the top docked compounds to ACE2 receptor though they strongly interacted with CoV target protein. The study data showed that immune responses to immunonutrient-based sports compounds (viz. quercetin and β-glucan) in Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) were essential in mounting successful immune responses by athletes. While awaiting the development of an effective vaccine, there is a need to focus on immunonutrient-based sports supplements as preventive and therapeutic options that can be implemented in a safe and quick manner to bolster immune responses in athletes.
Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma
... This combat sport is characterized by high-intensity intermittent activity with 0.7 to 1.7-s attacks that include 1-3 kicks and punches, which are interspersed with 2-8 s of low-intensity action composed by step or pause [2]. Each athlete in a tournament typically fights 3-7 matches across 1-2 days, depending on their successful advancement throughout the tournament [3]. One of the critical physiological challenges of a taekwondo (and other combat sport) athlete is the short recovery time between each match, which is typically between 30 min and 2 h during a tournament [4,5]. ...
... Taekwondo matches are comprised of intermittent high intensity burst of activity followed by periods of low intensity exercise or rest. During a tournament day these matches are repeated three to five times interspersed with passive rest (ranging from~30 min to 3 h) [3]. We hypothesized that CHO ingestion immediately following each sport-specific kicking test would maintain kick performance and euglycemia, across repeated tests. ...
Background
Carbohydrate (CHO) ingestion enhances exercise performance; however, the efficacy of CHO intake on repeated bouts of exercise simulating a taekwondo tournament is unknown. Therefore, the purpose was to compare the effects of two different doses of CHO on a sports-specific kicking test during a simulated taekwondo tournament compared to placebo (PLA).
Methods
In a double-blind, randomized-placebo controlled, cross-over trial, eleven junior male professional taekwondo athletes (age: 16 ± 0.8 years, body mass: 55.3 ± 7.3 kg) ingested one of three solutions: (i) high dose (C45): 45 g of CHO (60 g∙h − 1 ), (ii) low dose (C22.5): 22.5 g of CHO (30 g∙h − 1 ; both solutions containing 2:1 glucose:fructose), or a PLA immediately following each kicking test. The kicking test was repeated 5 times, separated by 45 mins of rest, simulating a typical taekwondo competition day. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and gastrointestinal discomfort (GI) scores were collected immediately after, and blood glucose before each test.
Results
The results revealed that C45 and C22.5 did not improve total, successful, or percentage of successful kicks compared to PLA ( p > 0.05). Blood glucose was significantly higher following both CHO conditions compared with PLA across all five tests ( p < 0.05). There were no differences between treatments or across tests for RPE ( p > 0.05).
Conclusion
CHO intake, independent of the dose, did not alter taekwondo kick performance during a simulated taekwondo tournament.
... Simulated and actual taekwondo combats differ regarding HR adjustments. During simulated matches, authors found an elevated range for observed HR (values between 175 and 197 bpm) (2,4,5,9,10,24,26,37,52). In between rounds, HR was shown to progressively increase, reaching its peak at the third round of the match (Table 4). ...
... In a competitive context, taekwondo official contests are held in the form of a quarterfinal, semifinal, and final in the same day (66), and the HR responses after this sequence of matches had been previously evaluated (5,9,37). During a 4-match competition day, the detected HR during combat was 192 6 8 bpm, 192 6 8 bpm, 193 6 8 bpm, and 194 6 8 bpm in matches 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively (5). ...
... These values represent approximately 94% HRpeak. Sex and weight were not associated with the observed HR response (9,37). Altogether, these results indicate to coaches and athletes what should be their control aim during training cycles. ...
Taekwondo is a complex combat sport characterized by high-intensity short activity and low-intensity activity and/or pause. This systematic review focused on which type of physical capacities and the main physiological adjustments that are demanded during official taekwondo matches. The search was performed in electronic databases in which 38 articles were selected. Taekwondo matches' characteristics, time-motion analysis, physical and physiological responses during prematch and postmatch were described. After analysis, practical recommendations were suggested regarding physical training prescriptions oriented to performance optimization of taekwondo athletes.
... These results are in agreement with higher CD4 values than CD8 values in healthy adults [33]. However, in other type of athletes such as elite swimmers [34] or Taekwondo athletes [35], the CD4/CD8 ratio was inverted. ...
This study was designed to analyze the chronical responses of the hormonal and immune systems after a CrossFit® training period of six months as well as to compare these results between genders. Twenty-nine CrossFit® practitioners (35.3 ± 10.4 years, 175.0 ± 9.2 cm, 79.5 ± 16.4 kg) with a minimum CrossFit® experience of six months were recruited, and hormonal and immune responses were verified every two months during training. The training was conducted in five consecutive days during the week, followed by two resting days. Testosterone (T) values were significantly higher at the last measurement time (T6 = 346.0 ± 299.7 pg·mL-1) than at all the other times (p < 0.002) and were higher in men than in women (p < 0.001). Cortisol (C) levels were lower at all times compared to the initial level before training, and differences were observed between men and women, with men having a lower value (T0: p = 0.028; T2: p = 0.013; T4: p = 0.002; and T6: p = 0.002). The TC ratio in women was lower at all times (p < 0.0001) than in men. Significant effects on CD8 levels at different times (F(3.81) = 7.287; p = 0.002; η
p
2 = 0.213) and between genders (F(1.27) = 4.282; p = 0.048; η
p
2 = 0.137), and no differences in CD4 levels were observed. CrossFit® training changed the serum and basal levels of testosterone and cortisol in men (with an increase in testosterone and a decrease in cortisol).
... As for the effects of exercise on immunity, it has been reported that regular exercise generally enhances the immune function with some differences according to intensity, duration, type, and amount of exercise (He et al., 2001). However, when one exercises temporarily with high intensity or exercises too much, he or she will reduce immune function and be easily exposed to infection (Jin et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2012). ...
It is important to treat obesity and the related noncommunicable dis-eases. The main objective of this study is the effect of different training types on inflammatory and immune markers in obesity. Seventeen obese men with body mass index (BMI)≥26 kg/m² were randomly divid-ed into two groups: aerobic training group (AT; n=9) and combined aer-obic and resistance training group (CT; n=8). Body composition (weight, BMI, %body fat), factors of physical performance (one-repetition maxi-mum [1RM], maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max]), inflammatory markers (interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]), immune markers (leukocyte, natural killer cell) were analyzed before and after 8-week training. Body composition (weight, BMI, and %body fat) was signifi-cantly reduced after training in both the AT and CT groups (P < 0.05). As a result of training, VO2max of all training groups was increased and 1RM of CT group was partially improved. In particular, the inflammatory marker, TNF-α was significantly reduced (P < 0.05) and the change was correlated with %body fat in the posttraining CT group. In this study, we found that combined training for 8 weeks improved physical fitness, body composition, and inflammation. It is suggested that restoring obe-sity through combined training of aerobic and resistance exercise is re-lated to changes in serum TNF-α levels.
... The larger number of lymphocytes associated with the karate group is also an interesting result from our research. While karate has never been reported to be associated with changes of lymphocyte counts, training in Taekwondo, a Korean martial art similar to karate, has been said to be related to elevations of specific lymphocyte subpopulations [61]. Likewise, a recent investigation of immunoendocrine changes following Marine Corps martial arts training revealed that this program also induced an elevation of lymphocytes [62]. ...
Karate is a Japanese martial arts system with potential physical and psychological benefits. However, karate has been scarcely investigated from a psychobiological perspective, and its effects on the immune system remain virtually unknown. We designed the present study with the aim of analyzing the effects of karate practice on immunological parameters. 27 healthy male volunteer subjects participated in the study, 15 in the experimental group and 12 in the control. Experimental subjects were all karate players who had practiced thismartial art for a minimum of three years attending regular lessons at a karate training center, in the evening, two to three days per week. Blood samples for the quantification of immunological parameters (total leukocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, IgG, IgA, and IgM) were taken in both groups. A t-test for independent groups was performed in each dependent variable; a value of p<0.05 was considered to be significant. Karate practitioners exhibited a significantly higher number of total leukocytes (p<0.02), monocytes (p<0.01), and lymphocytes (p<0.01), a higher percentage of monocytes (p<0.01), and greater serum concentrations of IgG (p<0.02) and IgM (p<0.01). Our findings show that long-term
karate practice is related to a broad modulation of immune parameters, including total and specific leukocyte counts, as well as immunoglobulin concentrations. This peculiar immunomodulatory profile, apart from its psychobiological relevance, may have
noteworthy clinical implications.
... Such repeated exposure to combat may dramatically alter the physiological requirements when compared to a single fight. The hormonal and immunological responses to successive taekwondo combat exposures have recently been examined in both adolescent and youth competitors (17,35,40). These preliminary investigations suggest that repeated exposure to taekwondo combat may stimulate muscle protein catabolism, compromise immune function, and modulate the salivary stress-hormonal response (17,35,40). ...
... The hormonal and immunological responses to successive taekwondo combat exposures have recently been examined in both adolescent and youth competitors (17,35,40). These preliminary investigations suggest that repeated exposure to taekwondo combat may stimulate muscle protein catabolism, compromise immune function, and modulate the salivary stress-hormonal response (17,35,40). Recent research evaluating the impact of caffeine on reaction times in taekwondo contests also provides evidence of variation in the HR and blood lactate responses between successive taekwondo bouts (46), highlighting the potential for changes in metabolic function in this setting. ...
... It is also problematic for investigations that require adequate sample sizes to perform inferential statistical analysis (1,17,31). These shortcomings have therefore prompted numerous research groups in taekwondo (10,16,31,35,40,46) and other combat sports (2,3,7,25,(27)(28)(29)32,33) to study the physiological, hormonal, immunological, and performance responses in simulated combat settings. Simulated combat settings have offered a number of researchers an effective compromised between obtaining suitable control over the environment, permitting more comprehensive examination of the combat demands (2,7,16,25,31,33,35,40), or the efficacy of selected interventions (3,27,28,46), while also providing a close approximation of the energetic demands of championship bouts; assuming that the latter is subjected to some form of accepted validity checks (16,31). ...
Bridge, CA, Sparks, SA, McNaughton, LR, Close, GL, Hausen, M, Gurgel, J, and Drust, B. Repeated exposure to taekwondo combat modulates the physiological and hormonal responses to subsequent bouts and recovery periods. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-This study examined the physiological and hormonal responses to successive taekwondo combats using an ecologically valid competition time structure. Ten elite male international taekwondo competitors (age 19 ± 3 years) took part in a simulated championship event. The competitors performed 4 combats that were interspersed with different recovery intervals (63 ± 4, 31 ± 3 and 156 ± 5 minutes, respectively). Heart rate (HR) was measured during the combats and venous blood samples were obtained both before and after each combat to determine the plasma metabolite and hormone concentrations. The plasma noradrenaline (21.8 ± 12.8 vs. 15.0 ± 7.0 nmol·l) and lactate (13.9 ± 4.2 vs. 10.5 ± 3.2 mmol·l) responses were attenuated (p < 0.05) between combat 1 and 4. Higher (p < 0.05) HR responses were evident in the final combat when compared with the earlier combats. Higher (p < 0.05) resting HR (139 ± 10 vs. 127 ± 12 b·min), plasma lactate (3.1 ± 1.2 vs. 2.0 ± 0.7 mmol·l), glycerol (131 ± 83 vs. 56 ± 38 μmol·l) and nonesterified free fatty acid (0.95 ± 0.29 vs. 0.71 ± 0.28 mmol·l) concentrations were measured before combat 3 compared with combat 1. Repeated exposure to taekwondo combat using an ecologically valid time structure modulates the physiological and hormonal responses to subsequent bouts and recovery periods. Strategies designed to assist competitors to effectively manage the metabolic changes associated with the fight schedule and promote recovery between the bouts may be important during championship events.
... The main kick applied to score is a semicircle kick denominated bandal tchagui [2]. Recently, different studies have been conducted to increase the knowledge about taekwondo characteristics to improve athletes performance, and most of these investigations have focused on physiological responses [3][4][5][6][7], time-motion [2,[8][9][10], and training methods [3,[11][12][13][14][15][16]. ...
Background and Study
Aim: Background and Study Aim: Using specific training methods is an important aspect in the preparation of taekwondo athletes. The purpose of the present study is the knowledge about physiological responses, during three different training protocols and official taekwondo matches.
Material and Methods: Eleven black-belt taekwondo athletes: age 24 ±5 years; body mass 76.8 ±15.3 kg; height 178 ±0.1 cm and MBI 24.1 ±3.7 kg/m2) completed a official taekwondo competition and three experimental conditions of training (2-, 4- and 6 kicks bandal tchagui, each 10 seconds, respectively) with the same total duration (3 rounds of 2 min with 1 min rest between each round), the physiological variables were measured, blood lactate concentration, heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE).
Results: For the HRpeak a round effect was identified (F1.294; 12.936 = 59.940; p<0.001, h2 = 0.857 [large]), with round 2 was superior to round 1 (p = 0.001), round 3 was superior to round 1 (p<0.001) and round 2 (p<0.001). For the blood lactate concentration a round effect was identified (F3; 30 = 133.441; p<0.001, h2 = 0.930 [large]), with lower values being observed at pre compared to all post-rounds measurements (p<0.001 for all comparisons).
Conclusions: The taekwondo exercise reached the same heart rate peak and blood lactate concentration that the rates presented during the taekwondo match, therefore, can replicate the physiological response of the official competition. However, it will be necessary to verify the effects of more prolonged periods of these exercises to know if the stress generated is adequate to improve the physical performance.
