Figure 1 - uploaded by Erik Meijaard
Content may be subject to copyright.
Change in distribution of oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua. The change in the distribution of oil palm plantations every 9 years between 2000 and 2018 across three major Indonesian islands: (a) Sumatra, (b) Kalimantan, and (c) Papua. Oil palm plantations are grouped into three categories: (1) RSPO-certified plantations, i.e. certified large-scale industrial plantations (CERT), (2) uncertified plantations within oil palm concession boundaries, i.e. non RSPO-certified large-scale industrial plantations (CONC), and (3) uncertified plantations outside oil palm concessions, i.e. mainly independent small-scale landholders (NCONC).
Source publication
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) has emerged as the world’s largest sustainability standard to tackle social and environmental issues associated with the oil palm industry. To date, however, the effectiveness of RSPO certification remains uncertain, especially for socio-economic objectives. Here we evaluate the impact of certification...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... we evaluate the impact of RSPO certification on village well-being across the main oil palm producing regions of Indonesia: Sumatra (with a land area of 470,000 km 2 and comprising 24,259 villages), Kalimantan (540,000 km 2 ; 7,095 villages), and Papua (420,000 km 2 ; 4,957 villages) (Figure 1). We defined village well-being in terms of the socioeconomic (i.e. ...
Context 2
... pace of development in Indonesia's oil palm industry has not been evenly distributed, echoing agrarian development in other tropical countries. Most expansion has taken place in Sumatra (now 81,200 km 2 ) ( Figure 1a), followed by Kalimantan (53,300 km 2 ) (Figure 1b), and more recently Papua (2,100 km 2 ) ( Figure 1c). In Sumatra the current plantation extent has nearly doubled since 2000, while Kalimantan and Papua experienced a fourfold increase in plantation extent in the same period (Figure 1). ...
Context 3
... pace of development in Indonesia's oil palm industry has not been evenly distributed, echoing agrarian development in other tropical countries. Most expansion has taken place in Sumatra (now 81,200 km 2 ) ( Figure 1a), followed by Kalimantan (53,300 km 2 ) (Figure 1b), and more recently Papua (2,100 km 2 ) ( Figure 1c). In Sumatra the current plantation extent has nearly doubled since 2000, while Kalimantan and Papua experienced a fourfold increase in plantation extent in the same period (Figure 1). ...
Context 4
... pace of development in Indonesia's oil palm industry has not been evenly distributed, echoing agrarian development in other tropical countries. Most expansion has taken place in Sumatra (now 81,200 km 2 ) ( Figure 1a), followed by Kalimantan (53,300 km 2 ) (Figure 1b), and more recently Papua (2,100 km 2 ) ( Figure 1c). In Sumatra the current plantation extent has nearly doubled since 2000, while Kalimantan and Papua experienced a fourfold increase in plantation extent in the same period (Figure 1). ...
Context 5
... expansion has taken place in Sumatra (now 81,200 km 2 ) ( Figure 1a), followed by Kalimantan (53,300 km 2 ) (Figure 1b), and more recently Papua (2,100 km 2 ) ( Figure 1c). In Sumatra the current plantation extent has nearly doubled since 2000, while Kalimantan and Papua experienced a fourfold increase in plantation extent in the same period (Figure 1). Thus, the three regions can be viewed as being at advanced, intermediate and early stages of oil palm development, respectively. ...
Context 6
... Indonesia, agriculture of more than 25 hectares is classified as an industrial plantation and requires a concession permit (Izin Usaha Perkebunan or IUP), either issued by the head of a regency, mayor, or governor (Ministerial Decree No. 98/Permentan/2013). In Sumatra, oil palm plantations are largely dominated by smallholders that do not require a concession permit (64% for NCONC), and the rate of expansion of smallholder plantations exceeds the rate of expansion of large-scale concession holders from big companies, i.e. uncertified industrial oil palm plantations (CONC) and RSPO-certified industrial plantations (CERT) (Figure 1a). On the other hand, the oil palm area in Kalimantan and Papua is dominated by large-scale industrial concession holders (66% for CONC and CERT combined in Kalimantan and 69% for CONC in Papua), and these concessions play a dominant role in the expansion of oil palm in the last two decades (Figure 1b, c). ...
Context 7
... Sumatra, oil palm plantations are largely dominated by smallholders that do not require a concession permit (64% for NCONC), and the rate of expansion of smallholder plantations exceeds the rate of expansion of large-scale concession holders from big companies, i.e. uncertified industrial oil palm plantations (CONC) and RSPO-certified industrial plantations (CERT) (Figure 1a). On the other hand, the oil palm area in Kalimantan and Papua is dominated by large-scale industrial concession holders (66% for CONC and CERT combined in Kalimantan and 69% for CONC in Papua), and these concessions play a dominant role in the expansion of oil palm in the last two decades (Figure 1b, c). Villages with certified oil palm plantations as the primary land use typically undergo a sequence of land use transition prior to the RSPO certification ( Figure S1 in the Supplementary Materials). ...
Context 8
... the other hand, the oil palm area in Kalimantan and Papua is dominated by large-scale industrial concession holders (66% for CONC and CERT combined in Kalimantan and 69% for CONC in Papua), and these concessions play a dominant role in the expansion of oil palm in the last two decades (Figure 1b, c). Villages with certified oil palm plantations as the primary land use typically undergo a sequence of land use transition prior to the RSPO certification ( Figure S1 in the Supplementary Materials). The original land cover in most of the study areas was natural forest (55% forest cover on average), from which timber was commercially harvested, resulting in degraded forest stands. ...
Context 9
... primary land use change matrices to industrial oil palm plantations and RSPO-certified plantations ( Figure 3a) reflect an underlying pattern of oil palm development and expansion in Indonesia. Papua represents an early stage of the oil palm industry, where plantation development is mainly confined within former or current transmigration villages and operated mostly by large oil palm companies (Budidarsono et al. 2013) (Figures 1a and 3a). Kalimantan represents the intermediate stage of the oil palm industrial development, where company plantations begin to expand rapidly outside transmigration areas towards villages in forested landscapes and dominated by subsistence-based communities (Figures 1b and 3a). ...
Context 10
... represents an early stage of the oil palm industry, where plantation development is mainly confined within former or current transmigration villages and operated mostly by large oil palm companies (Budidarsono et al. 2013) (Figures 1a and 3a). Kalimantan represents the intermediate stage of the oil palm industrial development, where company plantations begin to expand rapidly outside transmigration areas towards villages in forested landscapes and dominated by subsistence-based communities (Figures 1b and 3a). These expansions lead to an influx of workers and stimulate spontaneous migrations to the newly opened oil palm areas ( Schoneveld et al. 2019). ...
Context 11
... expansions lead to an influx of workers and stimulate spontaneous migrations to the newly opened oil palm areas ( Schoneveld et al. 2019). At this intermediate stage, oil palm smallholdings are also expanding, but the expansion rate is slower that the industrial-scale plantations (Figure 1a). Sumatra represents the advanced stage of oil palm development, where the number of smallholders, who either migrated in the preceding intermediate stage or more recently, continues to grow and expand exceeding the rate of expansion of the company plantations (Figures 1c and 3a). ...
Context 12
... this intermediate stage, oil palm smallholdings are also expanding, but the expansion rate is slower that the industrial-scale plantations (Figure 1a). Sumatra represents the advanced stage of oil palm development, where the number of smallholders, who either migrated in the preceding intermediate stage or more recently, continues to grow and expand exceeding the rate of expansion of the company plantations (Figures 1c and 3a). This in turn creates an increasingly complex and intertwining company and smallholder relationship (Euler et al. 2016;Gaveau et al. 2017;Jelsma et al. 2017). ...
Context 13
... study covered Sumatra (comprising eight provinces), Kalimantan (five provinces), and Papua (two provinces) (BPS 2014) (Figure 1). In 2017, the population of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua was estimated at 53 million, 16 million, and 4 million, respectively (BPS 2018), with many people residing in coastal areas. ...
Context 14
... also used spatial data on oil palm concessions and RSPO member plantations (certified and uncertified) described in Carlson et al. (2018). Combining information on planted oil palm plantations, oil palm concession boundaries, and RSPO member plantations (certified and uncertified), we estimated the distributions of three plantation ownerships: (1) RSPO-certified industrial plantations (CERT); (2) uncertified oil palm plantations within concession boundaries (mainly includes the uncertified RSPOmember industrial plantations and non-RSPO industrial plantations) (CONC); (3) uncertified oil palm plantations outside concession boundaries (mainly includes independent oil palm smallholders) (NCONC) (Figure 1). ...
Similar publications
The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil has emerged as the leading sustainability certification system to tackle socioenvironmental issues associated with the oil palm industry. However, the effectiveness of certification by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil in achieving its socioeconomic objectives remains uncertain. We evaluate the impact of...
Riau Province is one of the provinces in Sumatra with the most oil palm plantations. Riau Province was once recognized as Indonesia’s greatest oil-producing province, but with the fall in output owing to decreasing oil reserves, Riau has become a greater palm oil producer. Not unexpectedly, palm oil has surpassed petroleum in terms of foreign excha...
In recent decades, global oil palm production has shown an abrupt increase, with almost 90% produced in Southeast Asia alone. Monitoring oil palm is largely based on national surveys and inventories or one-off mapping studies. However, they do not provide detailed spatial extent or timely updates and trends in oil palm expansion or age. Palm oil yi...
Indonesia has been the largest supplier of palm oil since 2007, and now supplies around 56% of the global market. While the existing literature has paid serious attention to the diverse impacts of oil palm plantation on socioeconomic factors and the environment, less is known about the joint role of biophysical and socioeconomic factors in shaping...
Various efforts to overcome poverty have been carried out by the government but the number of poor people is still quite high. Based on the 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian government has a mandate to realize social welfare for all people. Well-being is characterized by the fulfillment of the material, spiritual, and social needs of citizens. In o...
Citations
... In their assessment of spillovers from RSPO certification, Heilmayr et al. (34) used pixels as the unit of analysis and showed that exposure to certification reduced deforestation inside Indonesia's forest estate, but increased deforestation in areas zoned for agricultural production. Using villages as the unit of analysis, Santika et al. (35) examined the impact of certification on poverty and village development in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua and suggested heterogeneity in outcomes correlated with pre-existing village level of development. ...
Environmental and social problems triggered by rapid palm oil expansion in the tropics have spurred the proliferation of sustainability certification systems such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). While the RSPO aims to improve the impact of oil palm production on people and environments, its effect on local development, environmental quality, and, especially, potential trade-offs between these outcomes remain unclear. Here, we evaluate whether RSPO certification of large-scale industrial concessions has promoted village development and supported environmental quality in Indonesia, the top global palm oil producer. Using a panel dataset with observations from 11,000 villages in Kalimantan and Sumatra from 2003-2014, we apply rigorous quasi-experimental methods to quantify the RSPO's impacts on village development and environmental outcomes. In the short-run, RSPO contributed to environmental conservation, but had limited development outcomes. On average, relative to villages with non-certified concessions, RSPO certification reduced deforestation and protected primary forests in Sumatra and lowered the incidence of village-reported land pollution in Kalimantan. RSPO certification also increased the number of private educational facilities in Kalimantan, but had no statistically significant impacts on other development indicators. However, the trade-offs and complementarities between conservation and development vary by slope, a proxy for ecosystem fragility and oil palm profitability. On gentler slopes, we generally find complementarities between conservation and development outcomes. In Kalimantan, certification increased the number of private educational facilities and reduced deforestation and the incidence of land pollution on slopes <2°. In Sumatra, certification increased primary forests, decreased deforestation and the incidence of water pollution on slopes <1°, along with a decrease in population density. Higher slopes in both locations were associated with environment and development trade-offs. We highlight the need to better understand the mechanisms behind the impacts of RSPO and emphasized how the outcomes of certification depend on the communities' bargaining power and the profitability of the land for oil palm production. Thus, we provide insights into understanding these mechanisms behind the impacts of RSPO, which is a prerequisite for improving the design of certification systems and their impacts on the ground.
... Primary livelihoods sectors across villages in Kalimantan were derived by overlaying: (1) data on the livelihoods of the majority of people at village level (or the livelihood sectors that primarily drive the village economy) obtained from the Potensi Desa (PODES, 'Village Potential') dataset (BPS 2017), and (2) data on agro-industrial and forest concessions (Santika et al. 2015(Santika et al. , 2020Gaveau et al. 2016). ...
The increasing extent and frequency of fires globally requires nuanced understanding of the drivers of large-scale events for improved prevention and mitigation. Yet, the drivers of fires are often poorly understood by various stakeholders in spatially expansive and temporally dynamic landscapes. Further, perceptions about the main cause of fires vary amongst stakeholders, which amplify ongoing challenges from policies being implemented inconsistently across different governance levels. Here, we develop a spatially and temporally-explicit typology of fire prevalence across Kalimantan, Indonesia, a region with significant contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions. Based on livelihood information and data on climate, soil type and forest degradation status, we find that in intact forest the density of fires in villages that largely coincide with oil palm concessions was twice as high as in villages outside the concessions across all years. Fires occurring in degraded land on mineral soil across all years were also most prevalent in villages with industrial plantations (oil palm or timber). On the other hand, in degraded peatland, where fires are most intense during dry years induced by the El Niño episodes, occurrence rates were high regardless of village primary livelihoods. Based on these findings we recommend two key priorities for fire mitigation going forward for policy across different governance levels in Kalimantan: degraded peatland as the priority area and industrial plantations as the priority sector. Our study suggests a fire prevention and mitigation approach, which accounts for climate, land type and village livelihood, has the potential to deliver more effective means of management.
... However, villages that were mostly subsistence-based only experienced short-term economic gains and reported a rise in malnutrition (Santika et al., 2019b). Compared to other regions of Indonesia, Sumatra has a stronger market economy presence (Baudoin et al., 2017;Giacomin, 2018;Santika et al., 2020). Wellestablished markets and good infrastructure can provide access to foods by using income derived from commercial farming. ...
This study aims to evaluate palm oil productivity by the smallholders in Indonesia, which offered by particular external factors condition. This article consists of 400 smallholders from 5 different districts as respondents. Evaluation of the survey data was undertaken using inferential statistics, one-way and two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and regression methods. An increase of 1 USD income per day would translate to an increase of 2 kg of output. Local government support is more critical than the central government since it can boost up to 100 kg of output. Corporate support and Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil certification help boosting the harvest up to 80 kg of output. The current farming association shows a sign of inefficiency. The plantation lifespan has a positive impact on output productivity, which will be achieved when the plantation lifespan has productive periods. That indicates that external factors affect the smallholder's productivity in its way.
